Chapters 7 And 8 Memory, Language, And Thought

Front 1

Encoding

Back 1

processing info to form a mental code

Front 2

Storage

Back 2

involves holding and maintaining encoded info in memory over time

Front 3

Retrieval

Back 3

involves locating and recovering info from memory

Front 4

Attention

Back 4

involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

Front 5

"Cocktail Party Phenomenon"

Back 5

you can hear your name when you had previously been paying attention to a different conversation

Front 6

Levels of Processing Theory

Back 6

model of memory 1 of 4. Proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer lasting memory codes

Structural (visual), Phonemic (acoustic), Semantic

Front 7

Structural (visual)

Back 7

shallow, emphasis on physical structure

Front 8

Phonemic (acoustic)

Back 8

intermediate, focus on what the word sounds like

Front 9

Semantic

Back 9

deep, focus on meaning of the word and what it represents

Front 10

maintenance rehearsal

Back 10

very shallow, repeating info over and over

Front 11

elaboration

Back 11

very deep, links stimulus to other info at the time of encoding

Front 12

imagery

Back 12

creation of visual images to represent words, used to enrich encoding

Front 13

self-referent encoding

Back 13

involves deciding whether or how info is personally relevant

Front 14

sensory memory

Back 14

preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second

Front 15

sensory register

Back 15

info is brought in through 5 senses and held for 1 second in this. each sense has its own

Front 16

Brown-Peterson Procedure

Back 16

a distractor task to prevent rehearsal

Front 17

Information Processing Model of Memory

Back 17

model of memory 2 of 4. info goes into the sensory register it leaves within a second (whether that means lost or moved on) stuff that is paid attention to goes to the short term memory. it is either rehearsed and brought back to the stm, lost within 20 sec, or encoded into long term memory. from long term memory it can be brought back to stm by retrieval

Front 18

Short Term Memory (STM)

Back 18

is a limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed info for 10-20 seconds

Front 19

Rehearsal

Back 19

the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about info

Front 20

chunk

Back 20

group familiar stimuli; stored as a single unit to improve stm capacity

Front 21

working memory capacity (WMC)

Back 21

refers to one's ability to hold and manipulate info into conscious attention

Front 22

Long-Term Memory

Back 22

an unlimited capacity store that holds information forever

Front 23

Flashbulb Memory

Back 23

unusually vivid memory, primarily encoded semantically, that contains detailed recollections of the circumstances of which people learned about an emotionally significant memory

Front 24

conceptual hierarchy

Back 24

multilevel classification system based on common properties among items

Front 25

schema

Back 25

an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object from PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE and EXPERIENCES with that object

Front 26

semantic network

Back 26

web of interconnected facts

Front 27

spreading activation

Back 27

when people hear one word and think of related words, it is called spreading activation

Front 28

Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)

Back 28

model of memory 3 of 4. assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation on highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks (specific memories correspond to specific patterns of activation)

Front 29

consolidation

Back 29

solidifying memories to make them permanent

Front 30

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Back 30

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accomplished by a feeling it is just barely out of reach. May be able to remember the first letter or something about it

Front 31

feeling of knowing phenomenon

Back 31

feel like you know it but are unable to describe it

Front 32

Elizabeth Loftus

Back 32

eyewitness memory, an example of misinformation

Front 33

misinformation effect

Back 33

when participants RECALL of an event they witnessed IS ALTERED by introducing misleading POST-EVENT INFORMATION

Front 34

Constructive memory

Back 34

filling in the gaps of memory using schemi during encoding+retrieval

Front 35

spontaneous generalization

Back 35

reaching conclusions based on limited/biased info using a schema

Front 36

reality monitoring

Back 36

process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources or internal sources

Front 37

source monitoring

Back 37

involves making attributions about the ORIGINS of memory

Front 38

destination memory

Back 38

involves TO WHOM one has TOLD WHAT

Front 39

mnemonic devices

Back 39

strategies for enhancing memory (acronyms, acrostics, rhymes, ect.)

Front 40

context dependent learning

Back 40

remember info best in the same/similar physical LOCATION as where info was learned

Front 41

state dependent learning

Back 41

remembering info best in the same physiological state as we learned the info

Front 42

testing effect

Back 42

you improve every time you take a test

Front 43

overlearning

Back 43

continued rehearsal after you first appear to have mastered it

Front 44

serial-position curve

Back 44

when subjects show better memorization of objects at the beginning and end of a list

Front 45

mood congruency

Back 45

info processing/recall is facilitated if a person's emotional state is similar to the tone of the info

Front 46

acrostics

Back 46

phrases or poems where each letter stands for something

Front 47

acronym

Back 47

first letters added together to form a word

Front 48

method of loci

Back 48

involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to remember are associated with certain locations

Front 49

link method

Back 49

forming mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together

Front 50

Forgetting curve

Back 50

by Ebbinghaus, graphs retention and forgetting over time

Front 51

retention

Back 51

proportion of materials remembered

Front 52

retention interval

Back 52

length of time between presentation of information to be remembered and the measurement of forgetting

Front 53

recall

Back 53

measure of retention requires subjects to REPRODUCE information without help (essay questions)

Front 54

recognition

Back 54

measure of retention that requires subject to SELECT previously learned information (multiple choice test questions)

Front 55

relearning

Back 55

measure of retention requires a subject to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before

Front 56

method of savings

Back 56

difference in number of practice trials between first and second time learning something

Front 57

ineffective encoding

Back 57

you never actually learned it

Front 58

decay

Back 58

gradual erosion of memory

Front 59

inference theory

Back 59

people forget info because of competition from other information

Front 60

retroactive decay

Back 60

when learning new info impairs the retention of PREVIOUSLY learned info

Front 61

proactive decay

Back 61

when old info impairs the learning of NEW info

Front 62

encoding specificity principle

Back 62

the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds with the memory code

Front 63

transfer appropriate processing

Back 63

model of memory 4 of 4. occurs when initial processing of info is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention

Front 64

motivated forgetting

Back 64

by Freud, refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconsciousness

Front 65

long-term potentiation

Back 65

increase in synaptic strength

Front 66

retrograde amnesia

Back 66

loss of memory of events prior to the onset of amnesia, due to brain swelling or a virus

Front 67

anterograde amnesia

Back 67

loss of memory of events after the onset of amnesia, a result of hippocampal damage

Front 68

declarative memory system

Back 68

purposeful, handles factual information

Front 69

explicit

Back 69

intentionally encoded or retrieved

Front 70

nondeclarative memory system

Back 70

unconscious, houses memories for actions, skills, conditioned responses, and emotional responses

Front 71

implicit

Back 71

unintentionally encoded or retrieved

Front 72

episodic memory system

Back 72

dated recollections of personal experiences

Front 73

semantic memory system

Back 73

general knowledge that is not connected to a time when it was learned

Front 74

prospective memory

Back 74

remembering to do something in the future

Front 75

retrospective memory

Back 75

remembering events from the past or previously learned info

Front 76

hippocampus

Back 76

part of the brain associated with memory

Front 77

thalamus

Back 77

relays info to be encoded

Front 78

prefrontal cortex

Back 78

home of working memory and higher order thinking

Front 79

amygdala

Back 79

emotional memories

Front 80

Glutamate

Back 80

neurotransmitter that strengthens neural connections

Front 81

acetylcholine

Back 81

alzheimer's

Front 82

cognition

Back 82

refers broadly to mental processes and thinking

Front 83

language

Back 83

consists of symbols that CONVEY MEANING and the RULES for combining those SYMBOLS that can be used to create an infinite number of messages

Front 84

phonemes

Back 84

smallest SOUND units in a language that can be distinguished perceptively

Front 85

morphemes

Back 85

smallest unit of MEANING in language

Front 86

semantics

Back 86

area of language focused on the MEANING of WORDS and their combinations (determining if its literal or metaphorical)

Front 87

syntax

Back 87

system of rules that specify how words can be ARRANGED into sentences

Front 88

Surface Structure

Back 88

string of words put together

Front 89

deep structure

Back 89

underlying meanings

Front 90

1 1/2 to 3 months

Back 90

cooing

Front 91

6 - 10 months

Back 91

babbling

Front 92

12 -18 months

Back 92

one word stage

Front 93

18 - 24 months

Back 93

telegraphic speech

Front 94

fast mapping

Back 94

process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure

Front 95

overextension

Back 95

child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions then it is meant to

Front 96

underextension

Back 96

child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects than is meant to

Front 97

overregulizations

Back 97

when grammatical rules are incorrectly applied to irregular cases

Front 98

metalinquistic awareness

Back 98

ability to reflect on the use of language (children dont understand sarcasm)

Front 99

bilinguilism

Back 99

acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary, and grammatical rules

Front 100

language acquisition device (LAD)

Back 100

by Chomsky, an innate mechanism or process that facilitates learning of language

Front 101

linguistic relativity

Back 101

the hypothesis that one's language determines the nature of one's thoughts

Front 102

functional fixedness

Back 102

tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

Front 103

mental set

Back 103

exist when people persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past and it prevents them from coming up with the correct strategy

Front 104

insight

Back 104

when people suddenly discover the correct solution after struggling with it for a while

Front 105

problem space

Back 105

set of possible pathways to a solution

Front 106

trial and error

Back 106

trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one works

Front 107

algorithms

Back 107

methodical step by step procedure for trying all possible alternatives

Front 108

heuristics

Back 108

guiding principles, a "rule of thumb" used in solving problems and decision making

Front 109

incubation effect

Back 109

new solutions surface after not consciously thinking about the problem for a while

Front 110

decision making

Back 110

evaluating alternatives and choices among them

Front 111

theory of bounded rationality

Back 111

asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus o only a few facets of available options and often result in "irrational" decisions that are less than optimal

Front 112

three things that limit decision making abilities

Back 112

time restraints, limited info, cognitive ability

Front 113

additive (multi-attribute) model

Back 113

gives things scores on specific attributes

Front 114

eliminating by aspects

Back 114

gradually eliminating less attractive alternatives

Front 115

reaction time

Back 115

time it takes to make a decision

Front 116

complexity

Back 116

how many possible responses there are

Front 117

stimulus-response compatibility

Back 117

does the response naturally go with the stimulus

Front 118

expectancy

Back 118

response is quicker or more accurate if you expect it

Front 119

risky decision making

Back 119

making choices under circumstances of uncertainty

Front 120

subjective utility

Back 120

represents what an outcome is personally worth to an individual

Front 121

speed accuracy trade off

Back 121

faster speed produces lower accuracy

Front 122

prototype

Back 122

first thing that comes to mind, a stereotypical thing. (when someone says dog, you picture a yellow lab)

Front 123

anchoring heuristic

Back 123

tendency to an initial estimate only slightly after being presented with additional information

Front 124

availability heuristic

Back 124

a mental shortcut that relies on IMMEDIATE example that COME TO MIND

Front 125

representative heuristic

Back 125

making a decision based on how something fits our SCHEMA or prototype

Front 126

script

Back 126

special order of things we do

Front 127

narrative

Back 127

schema in a story form

Front 128

conjunction fallacy

Back 128

when people estimate the odds of two uncertain things happening together as greater than one happening individual

Front 129

recognition heuristic

Back 129

when the choice is between two things, one heard of one not, people tend to assume the one heard of is of higher value

Front 130

gambler's fallacy

Back 130

belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred already. Thinking random events will correct themselves

Front 131

Overestimating the Improbable

Back 131

ignoring base rates, overestimate the likelihood of a good outcome

Front 132

Confirmation Bias

Back 132

the tendency to only interpret, seek, or recall info that is likely to support one's decisions and beliefs

Front 133

framing

Back 133

how you pose a question

Front 134

loss aversion

Back 134

a loss feels greater than a gain of the same size