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70 Cards in this Set

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what is heredity
the passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another
what is genetics
the study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics
what is a character or a trait how is it related
The best way to understand this is with examples. Hair color is a trait. Brown, black, red, blond are characteristics of the hair color trait. Hair type is a trait. Curly or straight are characteristics of the trait of hair type. Body size is a trait. Tall or short are characteristics of the trait of body size.
who is gregor mendel
who gained posthumous fame as the founder of the modern science of genetics
why are peas a good model for genetics
Garden pea-plants are good for genetic experiments because the garden pea has many traits that have two clearly different forms that are easy to tell apart.
what characteristics did he look for
Mendel worked with seven characteristics of pea plants: plant height, pod shape and color, seed shape and color, and flower position and color. With seed color, he showed that when a yellow pea and a green pea were bred together their offspring plant was always yellow.
what were his 4 main hypothesis
Mendel's Four Principles derive from his studies on plants. The four principles include: 1. An organism's traits are determined by its genes. 2. Each organism contains two alleles that create the genotype for a trait. 3. For sexual reproduction, each parent contributes one allele to the offspring. 4. Each genotype contains a dominant allele. If the dominant allele exists in the organism, the allele determines the phenotype.
law of segregation
the principle, originated by Gregor Mendel, stating that during the production of gametes the two copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that offspring acquire one factor from each parent.
self vs cross pollination
Self polination is when the stamen of the same flower can fertilize its own pistil. Cross pollination is when the pollen from the stamen of one flower fertilizes the pistil of a different flower.
what is a true bread
A true-breeding plant is one that, when self-fertilized, only produces offspring with the same traits.
explain mating pattern of p f1 f2 generation
when two true bread parents bread
f1 gen all come out dominate
but when f1 generation self pollinates its a 3-1 ratio of f2 generation
what are parent generation
The parents used for the first cross represent the parent (or P1) generation.
how are each generations created
p are self pollinated
f1 cross of p
f2 is self pollination of f1
explain trait
A trait is a distinct variant of a phenotypic character of an organism that may be inherited, environmentally determined or somewhere in between. For example, eye color is a character or abstraction of an attribute, while blue, brown and hazel are traits. Definition.
explain alleles
allele. n (genetics) either of a pair (or series) of alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same locus on a particular chromosome and that control the same character.
what is allele and how does it relate to gene and loci
A locus is a location on a chromosome. It is just a physical mapping site.
A gene is a sequence of DNA (at a specific locus) that does something. One gene may determine what color your eyes are going to be....
An allele is a specific variability in the gene sequence. At the "eye color" gene (at the specific locus), I may have alleles for green eyes while you have alleles for brown eyes.
Locus = where the gene is located
Gene = what function the allele codes for
Allele = variations in the function of the gene
monhybrid vs dihybrids crosses
if you cross pure-breeding tall pea plants with pure-breeding short pea plants, you are considering only 1 character: stem length. That is a monohybrid cross. If you cross pure-breeding tall, round-seed pea plants with pure-breeding short, wrinkled-seed pea plants, then you are considering 2 characters in the cross and it is a dihybrid cross
don't forget the extra credit work sheet
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
what is a wild type in genetics
It is now appreciated that most or all gene loci exist in a variety of allelic forms, which vary in frequency throughout the geographic range of a species, and that a uniform wild type does not exist.
what is a pedigree
A pedigree is a chart that shows all of the known phenotypes for an organism and its ancestors, most commonly including prevalent diseases in a family, traits in animals, etc.
how to solve pedigree
anyone who has a different phenotype than either of parents? if yes than recessive x or autosomal

are there any girls who have the recessive phenotype who also have a son or a father with DOMINANT phono type? if yes it can not be an x linked trait
define autosomes
any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
what is x linked
X-linked inheritance means that the gene causing the trait or the disorder is located on the X chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome
autosomol recessive
Autosomal recessive is one of several ways that a trait, disorder, or disease can be passed down through families.

An autosomal recessive disorder means two copies of an abnormal gene must be present in order for the disease or trait to develop.
autosomal dominate
Autosomal dominant is one of several ways that a trait or disorder can be passed down through families. If a disease is autosomal dominant, it means you only need to get the abnormal gene from one parent in order for you to inherit the disease.
examples of xlinked recessive and dominate
color blind is recessive hemophilia
explain color blind ness
x-linked recessive red and green the same
explain sickle cell anime
auto soma recessive abnormal blood cells
explain hunting tons
auto dominant causes deterioration of nevous system
explain peradactal
auto domino more than 5 fingers
what are the inheritance patterns and how do they work
auto domino every affect must have an affected parent 2 non affected must have non effected children

auto reccsive ll affected parents will have affected children
what is a carrier
is a mother who is heterozygous and caring a recessive gene for a disease
explain incomplete dominions with example
Incomplete dominance can happen in flowers such as snap dragons where a red flower plant and a white flower plant have an offspring that is neither red nor white but is a mix so in this case it would be pink.
explain codomince with blood
Your question doesn't make sense. But I'll try my best to explain co-dominance in blood types.
So a person who is AB blood type has A and B antigens both present...one allele does not mask the other as in within dominant recessive relationships.
A person with type A blood is either AA or AO...O meaning that there are no antigens at all, so it's just type A.
A person with type B blood is either BB or BO...same as above, but for type B.
A person with type O blood can only be OO...it doesn't have any antigens on the surface
what is pleiotropy .
Pleiotropy is defined as the phenomenon in which a single locus affects two or more distinct phenotypic traits. The term was formally introduced into the literature by the German geneticist Ludwig Plate in 1910, 100 years ago
explain polygenic inheritance and its affect
Polygenic inheritance is the effect of two or more genes on a phenotypic character. Which means two or more genes are present for the same physical characteristic.

An example of this ishuman skin pigmentation which is controlled by three or more genes, each dark skin allele contributes one "unit" of darkness.
explain DNA and its design sugar, phosphate base
The DNA is a double helix structure containing two polymers of nucleotide chains.
the deoxy ribose sugar and phosphate group of the nucleotides in both strands of DNA makes the back bone of the DNA. This backbone is hyderophilic in nature .
The inner core of the DNA contains the bases which are attached to the backbone. (ribose sugar)
The base molecules of each nucleotide in each strand is bonded in the inner core of the DNA through hydrogen bonds.
The purine bases A and C bonds only with the pyrimidine bases T and G respectively. Thus the bases in the nucleotides in each strand makes complementary base pairing in the inner core of the DNA. These bases are bonded to each other through hydrogen bonds.
what in dna is held together with hydrogen and covalent bonds
covalent bonds are present on the backbone, they hold the nucleotides together
hydrogen bonds are present in the helix, hold the bases together
understand the base pairings
Base pairs are the building modules of the DNA double helix, and add to the folded structure of both DNA and RNA. In RNA, Thymine is replaced with Uracil, Guanine pairs with Cytosine and Adenine pairs with Uracil. In DNA, the matching base pairs are: Adenine-Thymine, Guanine-Cytosine
Who were Watson, Crick, Wilkins and Franklin?
James Watson and Francis Crick solved the structure of DNA. Other scientists, like Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, also contributed to this discovery. Rosalind Franklin
Explain DNA replication.**
The double helix of the DNA unwinds. Then, the enzyme helicase 'unzips' the DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds. Then, the enzyme DNA Polymerase pairs each of the two strands with the correct nitrogenous bases. The top strand is called the 'leading strand' and the bottom strand is called the 'lagging strand'. Then the enzyme ligase glues together the different fragments of the lagging strand of DNA. Now we have two exact replications of DNA, each with 46 chromosomes called daughter cells.
What is the semiconservative model?
Semiconservative replication would produce two copies that each contained one of the original strands and one new strand.
Conservative replication would leave the two original template DNA strands together in a double helix and would produce a copy composed of two new strands containing all of the new DNA base pairs.
Dispersive replication would produce two copies of the DNA, both containing distinct regions of DNA composed of either both original strands or both new strands.
What is the origin of replication?
The origin of replication is a particular sequence in a genome at which replication is initiated. This can either involve the replication of DNA in living organisms such as prokaryotes and eukaryotes, or that of DNA or RNA in viruses, such as double-stranded RNA viruses.
What helicase responsible for?
helicase "unzips" the DNA (separates the strands). RNA polymerase forms the RNA primer on the lagging strand and
What is the replication fork?
A replication fork is just the junction where the double-stranded DNA splits apart into 2 single strands.

Helicase opens up the DNA duplex, which creates 2 replication forks, then polymerases start to build new daughter chains and the forks get further and further away from each other as the strands are elongated.
What will DNA polymerase be responsible for?
DNA polymerase adds on DNA nucleotides on both the leading and lagging strands.
What is the coding difference between the leading and lagging strand?
Lagging strand
The lagging strand template is the coding strand of the DNA double helix that is oriented in a 5' to 3' manner. The newly made lagging strand still is synthesized 5'-3'. However, since the DNA is oriented in a manner that does not allow continual synthesis, only small sections can be read at a time.

Leading strand
The leading strand template is the template strand of the DNA double helix that is oriented in a 3' to 5' manner. All DNA synthesis occurs 5'-3'
DNA is coded from 5’ to 3’.
So, DNA is always read 5' to 3', just like we read from left to right. But RNA is written from 3' to 5' to the corresponding "anti-sense" DNA strand. so... to get more as an example how this works here.
You have an "anti-sense" DNA strand written 5' to 3' here:
(5') CGG (3')
Usually on a test you are told to write the corresponding RNA so it would be.
GCC
both of them on top of each other:
(5') CGG (3')
(3') GCC (5')
But continuing our example you would write your answer as
"CCG" because you want to flip the direction of the
(3') GCC (5') because that is written as 3'-5' and you dont read books as right to left so therefor the final answer is
(5') CCG (3')
What are Okazaki fragments?
Okazaki fragments are short DNA formed on the lagging strand during the process of DNA replication
What is ligase? What does it do?
ligase is an enzyme that "ligates" to things.. or puts together two things. The common enyzme you're probably referring to is DNA ligase: when you have fragments of DNA, DNA ligase acts to squash together the fragments to give you one bigger stretch of DNA.
Explain transcription vs. translation.** How are they related?
Translation:
4. Each set of 3 bases on the mRNA is called a codon. Each codon calls for a specific amino acid to be brought to the building site. The first codon is always AUG, so it is called the start codon.
5. In the cytoplasm are molecules of tRNA. On one end of a tRNA molecule is the anticodon: a set of three bases that will match a certain codon. The other end of the tRNA can pick up and hold a certain amino acid. Each tRNA can only hold one kind of amino acid.
6. A tRNA with an anticodon that matches whichever codon is in place on the ribosome (think of that codon a
1. Transcription: The DNA unwinds and "unzips" in the area of the gene. Enzymes match RNA nucleotides to the unzipped nitrogen bases of the gene, forming a single strand of mRNA.
2. The strand of mRNA detaches from the gene and goes out of the nucleus through one of the pores in the nuclear envelope. The DNA zips back together and winds back up.
3. The mRNA finds a ribosome where protein synthesis will happen.
Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.**
Differences:

1.DNA is double stranded, RNA is single stranded
2. DNA has Thymine, while RNA has Uracil
3. DNA has deoxyribose sugar while RNA has ribose sugar.

Similarities

1. They are both a polymer of nucleotides
2. Its sugar is linked to a phosphate group at one end and a nitrogenous base at the other end
3. They both CAN be located in the nucleus (DNA stays in the nucleus, while RNA can move in and out of the nucleus)
What are proteins, amino acids (how many types) and polypeptide chains?
Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. They do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and organs.
20 amino acids
What are the 3 types of RNA? (t, r, m) What part of translation is each responsible for
mRNA: mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries coding information to the sites of protein synthesis: the ribosomes. Here, the nucleic acid polymer is translated into a polymer of amino acids: a protein.

tRNA: transfers a specific amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation. Basically forms the protein.

rRNA: provide a mechanism for decoding mRNA into amino acids and to interact with the tRNAs during translation by providing peptidyl transferase activity. Basically acts as a coordinator for the actions of mRNA and tRNA.
What is the codon? What is the anticodon? How do these “match?”
Each set of 3 bases on the mRNA is called a codon.

On one end of a tRNA molecule is the anticodon: a set of three bases that will match a certain codon.
Explain transcription
Transcription is the process of RNA molecules pairing with DNA strands, ex: [DNA strand] A G T C A T G C A A A
[RNA molecules] U C A G U A C G U U U

Transcription is done to form RNA strands that can be...translated!
Translation is the process of bringing messenger RNA (mRNA) together with translator RNA (tRNA) to make amino acids, which together make proteins, "the building blocks of life."
What is RNA polymerase? What does it do?
The Enzyme RNA Polymerase is meant to bind itself to DNA. Once bonded transcription of it begins. This process will continue until the DNA (RNA Polymerase) helix will be opened and after 10 RNA have been assembled, the sigma factor will fall off
What is a promoter?
In genetics, a promoter is a region of DNA that initiates transcription of a particular gene.
What is a terminator
The terminator is a sequence that signals the end of transcription.
What are introns and exons? Which are “important
exons are the parts of the gene that will represent the codons for creating the protein
introns lie between exons,and act as wasteful DNA, as they are cut out before the gene is translated (turned into a protein)
Explain RNA splicing
In molecular biology and genetics, splicing is a modification of the nascent pre-messenger RNA transcript in which introns are removed and exons are joined. For nuclear encoded genes, splicing takes place within the nucleus after or concurrently with transcription. ...
What are the ribosomes made of? What do they do?
Ribosomes are the components of cells that make proteins from all amino acids. Ribosomes are made from complexes of RNAs and proteins
Explain the 10 steps of translation. (Note that the book uses 3 steps here.)
Initial steps:
1. Messenger RNA (which made by the DNA transription mRNA) is bound to ribosome with the start codon (AUG) at the P site. A transfer RNA molecule with the amino acid methionine (M) and the anticodon UAC has bound to the exposed start codon. The codon UCA is exposed at the A site.
2. A second transfer RNA molecule, with the anticodon AGU and the amino acid serine (S) has bound to the A site. The 2 amino acids are close enough to form a peptide bond between them.
3. A peptide bond has formed between M and S and the peptide is bound to the A site. The methionine transfer RNA leaves, and the P site is exposed.
4. The ribosome has moved along the messenger RNA one codon, bringing the peptide to the P site. This exposes the A site and the next transfer RNA, carrying alanine (A) is about to bind.
Elongation steps:
1. The ribosome then moves 1 codon down the mRNA in a 5' to 3' direction. This is achieved by a translocase enzyme. As the process of ribosome translocatio
Explain the relationships between all of following- RNA, DNA, gene, protein, chromosome.**
DNA, which stands for deoxyribonucleic acid, is the long-chain molecule that contains the genetic material (encoded hereditary characteristics)

in living organisms. RNA, which stands for ribonucleic acid, is also a long-chain molecule. The function of RNA is to translate the genetic material stored in DNA, into protein structures. RNA essentially carries out the instructions of DNA.

a gene is just a small part of a chromosome, and a chromosome is just a small part of a person's DNA

In most living things, the genome is made of a chemical called DNA. The genome contains genes, which are packaged in chromosomes and affect specific characteristics of the organism.
What are mutations
the changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant form that may be transmitted to subsequent generations, caused by the alteration of single base units in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or rearrangement of larger sections of genes or chromosomes
What are point mutations
a mutation affecting only one or very few nucleotides in a gene sequence.
Explain silent, missense, and nonsense mutations
Silent mutations: which code for the same amino acid.
Missense mutations: which code for a different amino acid.
Nonsense mutations: which code for a stop and can truncate the protein
What is a reading frame? How can it be affected in mutations?
your question refers to the process of translation: the reading of a strand of mRNA to produce a string of amino acids, which goes on to form a fully functional protein. A structure called the ribosome, which is made of protein and rRNA, will bind to a sequence on the mRNA and basically slide along the single strand of nucleotides and "read" the sequence. As it reads, tRNA carrying the amino acids that the mRNA codes for will swim over and into the ribosome, forming a string of amino acids as the ribosome moves along.

So, the "reading frame" is, as defined by dictionary.com, "One of the three possible ways in which an mRNA sequence of nucleotides can be read as a series of base triplets to specify the amino acids in a protein chain." Each of those "base triplets," by the way, are called codons. For example, AUG is one codon (A being Adenine, U being Uracil, and G being Guanine).
How are mutations beneficial and yet can be harmful
A mutation changes one or more bases in your DNA, or adds or removes a number of bases to a place in your genome. If this occurs in an a functional gene that encodes an RNA (which for example can be translated to a protein) the final protein will end up looking different than without the mutation.

The protein is essentially a string of amino acids with different properties, and the amino acid sequence decides how the protein will fold and work. If the new protein after a mutation does "the job better" than the one before a mutation, you would have a benefiting mutation. Maybe the new protein is more effective in an enzymatic reaction or maybe it is ending up as a transmembrane protein (crossing your lipid cell membrane) and ensures a specific virus can no longer bind and infect the cell.

African women with mutations leading to HIV resistance is a good example of series of mutations turning out to give them a benefit
What is a promoter and an enhancer? How are they used?
The promoters are found in all genes that help in transcription which eventually will lead to produce proteins, the core promoter. This is a sequence of dna bases which are located upstream of about -35 bases( ie. the opposite direction of the transcription reation). They help in aid of the transcription to happen smoothly by having effective interaction with the transcription factors, thus forming a transcription complex and it also contains the RNA polymerase binding and regulatory sites necessary for transcription to happen. They usually have sequences called consensus sequence like TATA box in eukaryote or prinbow box in prokaryotes, which initiates the transcription by unwinding the DNA.
Apart from the basal promoter, there are unique upstream promoter sequences which attract other sequence-specific transcription factors and help construct the transcription complex. Different genes are thus regulated by different promoters and combinations of transcription factors even though tra