Chapter 8: Thinking&intelligence

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thinking

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the mental manipulation of representations of information (of objects we encounter)

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cognition

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mental activity that includes thinking and the understanding that result from thinking

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analogical representations

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mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects; they are analogous to the objects

-images of the object

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symbolic representations

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abstract mental representations and do not have relationships to the objects

-correspond with words (written representation)

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concept

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a category

-mental representation that groups or categorizes objects, events, or relations around common themes

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defining attribution model

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a way of thinking about concepts: a category is characterized by a list of features that determine if an object is a member of the category

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two types of representations involved in thinking

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1. analogical representations: representations that have some physical characteristics of objects

-correspond to images

2. symbolic representations: abstract, do not have relationship to the objects

-correspond to words

*both work together to form the basis of human thought, intelligence, and the ability to solve the complex problems of everyday life

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prototype model

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-some items within a group or class are more representative (best examples) of that category than are other items within that group or class

-example of a "best example" in instruments category--guitar

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exemplar model

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a way of thinking about concepts: all members of a category are examples

-together they form the concept and determine category membership

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schemas

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cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, and process info

-as we move through various real world settings we act appropriately by drawing on knowledge of what objects, behaviors, and events apply to each setting

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stereotypes

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cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of info about people based on their membership in certain groups

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gender roles

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prescribed behaviors for females and males

-represent a type of schema that operates at the unconscious level

-follow without even realizing we are doing so

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reasons we employ schemas

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1. common situations have consistent attributes

ex: libraries are quiet and contain books

2. people have specific roles within situational contexts

ex: librarians behave differently in a library than a reader does

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scripts

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one type of schema

-helps us understand the sequence of events in certain situations

-directs behavior over time within a situation

ex: going to movies

-dictate appropriate behaviors and the sequence in which they are likely to occur

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reasoning

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use info you believe is true to determine if a conclusion is valid

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decision making

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attempting to select the best alternative among several options

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problem solving

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finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal

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deductive reasoning

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using general rules to draw conclusions about specific instances

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inductive reasoning

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using specific instances to draw conclusions about general rules

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heuristics

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-in examining how people make everyday decisions, Tversky and Kahneman identified several common of these

-refers to the mental shortcuts (rules of thumb, informal guidelines) that we typically use to make decisions

-used to reduce the amount of thinking

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algorithm

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a procedure that will always yield the correct answer--if followed correctly

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framing

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how info is presented can alter how people perceive it

-use this to emphasize potential losses or potential gains to influence decision making

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mental age

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determined by comparing the child's test score with avg score for children of each chronological age

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intelligence quotient (IQ)

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-developed by Wilhelm Sterm

-computed by dividing child's estimated mental age by child's chronological age them multiplying result by 100

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intelligence

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ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to the environmental challenges

*individuals differ in this just like physically and in personality

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psychometric approach

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-Alfred Binet: measured child's vocab, memory, skill with numbers and other mental abilities

-this approach to intelligence focuses on how people perform on standardized achievement tests

-what do people know? how can they solve problems?

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achievement

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-psychometric tests focus on this

-asses people's current levels of skills and of knowledge

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aptitude

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-psychometric tests can focus on this

-seek to predict what tasks, and perhaps even what jobs, people will be good at in the future

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Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale

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-Binet and his assistant Theodore Simon developed first test to assess intelligence:

-method measured: child's vocab, memory, skill with numbers and other mental abilities

-how child performed on average across diff components indicates his or her overall level of intelligence

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Alfred Binet

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-wanted to identify children who needed extra attention in French school system

-thought intelligence was best understood through high level mental processes

-developed first method of assessing intelligence

Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale

*found that scores on his test consistent with teacher's believes about child's abilities and with grades

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Stanford Revision of Binet-Simon Scale

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-modified Binet-Simon and established normative scores for American kids

-in 1919: remains the most widely used test for children in the US

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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

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-revision of Binet-Simon Scale in 2003 so it could be used to test adults

-2008 version consists of two parts consisting of several tasks

-verbal part: measures aspects such as comprehension, vocal, general knowledge

-performance part: measures nonverbal tasks such as arranging pictures in proper order, assembling parts to make a whole object, identifying a picture's missing features

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adult IQ

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-measured in comparison with average adults and not adults of different ages

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normal distribution

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-average IQ is set at 100 today

-this is the "bell curve" that forms when viewing at IQ scores across large groups of people

-peak of curve is the average--today is 100

-more people are close to average, fewer on either extreme of score range

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are intelligence tests valid?

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YES, they tend to perform reasonably well

-overall evidence indicates that IQ is a fairly good predictor of life outcomes measured by intelligence (doing well in school, succeeding in complex careers)

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Miller Analogy Test

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-widely used for admissions decisions into graduate schools as well as hiring in many work settings

-results predicted individual's productivity, creativity, job performance in workplace

*suggests modest correlation between IQ and: work performance, income, jobs requiring complex skills

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25%

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-percentage of the variation in performance at either school or work that IQ scores predict

-additional factors contribute to individual success as well--NOT JUST IQ SCORE/INTELLIGENCE

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culture bias

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-one criticism of intelligence tests

-people can be penalized for belonging to certain cultures and not having the specific background knowledge required

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reification

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the tendency to think about complex traits as though they have a single cause and objective reality

-example: complex concept of intelligence

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general intelligence (g)

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the idea that one general factor underlies intelligence

-providing a single IQ score reflects the idea that one general factor underlies intelligence

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fluid intelligence

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intelligence that reflects the ability to process info, particularly in novel or complex circumstance

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crystallized intelligence

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intelligence that reflects both the knowledge one acquires through experience and the ability to use that knowledge

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multiple intelligence

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idea that there are different types of intelligence that are independent of one another

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analytical intelligence

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being good at problem solving

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creative intelligence

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involves the ability to gain insight and solve novel problems

-to think in new and interesting ways

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emotional intelligence (EI)

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form of social intelligence that emphasizes the abilities to manage, recognize, and understand emotions and use emotions to guide appropriate thought and action

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inspection time tests

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-supports a relation between general intelligence and speed of mental processing

-stimulus is presented then covered up to measure how much viewing time it takes a particular person to answer a question about the stimulus

-ppl need LITTLE time: tend to score HIGHER on psychometric tests of intelligence

*measuring electrical activity of brains in response to the presentation of the stim--shows highly intelligent ppl's brains work faster*

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working memory

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active processing system that holds info for use in activities such as reasoning, comprehension, problem solving

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word span task

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participant listens to a short list of words and then repeats words in order

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secondary processing task

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participant has to solve simple mathematical operations at same time words are presented then person has to repeat words in order they were presented

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savant

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person with minimal intellectual capacities in most domains but at a very early age shows an exceptional ability related to math, music, arts

-combo of prodigious memory and inability to learn seemingly basic tasks--GREAT MYSTERY

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behavioral genetics

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study of the genetic basis of behaviors and traits like intelligence

-use twin and adoption studies to estimate the extent to which particular traits are heritable

-tries to determine the portion of particular traits variance that can be attributed to genes

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stereotype threat

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apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to one's own group

-this fear causes distraction and anxiety, interfering with performance by reducing the capacity of short-term memory and undermining confidence and motivation