Chapter 8: The Age Of Enlightenment

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His oratorio called The Messiah was first performed in 1741 during a time of religious fervor.

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Handel

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His great church music was composed in the 1720s during a time of religious fervor right before the enlightenment.

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Bach

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Worked within the Church of England, he traveled to many places preaching and sharing his views even to the colonies. He helped to arouse the Greak Awakening of the 1740s. His followers were members of Methodist societies. His teachings stressed individual worth and spiritual consciousness independently.

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Wesley

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Austrian physician, who created a stir in Paris by arranging seances where people were touched by a wand, or sat in tubs, to recieve animal magnetism in hopes of curing various ills. His "mesmerism" was the beginnings of hypnosis, but was shut down by the Royal Academy of Sciences.

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Mesmer

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French writer who translated Newton and explained the significance of the new theories in her scientific essays. She was one of the many women to participate in Enlightenment culture.

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Emilie du Chatelet

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For a period of about 25 years beginning in 1750, she organized conversations of artists and writers at dinner, sometimes helping them financially, and introduced them to persons of influence in high society or in government. She was a famous hostess of a salon where people met to talk.

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Madanle de Geoffrin

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Wealthy philosophe who wrote books On the Mind and On Man, but also gave grand entertainments at which such matters were discussed.

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Helvetius

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(1694-1778); French philosophe, interested in freedom of thought. He popularized scientific ideas and admired England for its religious liberty, its tolerance for diverse ideas and scientific inquiry, its relative freedom of the press, and its respect for men of letters. He became a religious crusader for religous toleration and argued for a natural religion and against supernatural revelation. He was the first to present a secular conception of world history. He thought very low of the human race and thought the only good govt was one that was enlightened.

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Voltaire

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(1712-1778); French philosophe who thought society was artificial and corrupt. His discourses argued that civilization was the source of much evil and that life in a state of nature would be better. He thought of God as a first cause, but also as love and beauty, and was religious by temperment. He said that impulse is more reliable that considered judgment and was a "man of feeling". Wrote the Social Contract as well as many other books and works.

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Rousseau

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(1689-1755); French philosophe who wrote The Spirit of Laws, and developed the idea that forms of govt. varied according to climate and circumstances and his other was the separation and balance of powers. He believed the king should not have absolute power.

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Montesquieu

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Physician to Louis XV. He was concerned with the fiscal and tax reform and with measures to increase the national wealth of France. He favored strong government and opposed guild regulations.

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Quesnay

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French physiocrat whos purpose was to increase the national wealth by the reduction of barriers that hindered its growth. He preferred to limit the functions of the government to defense, internal security, and provision of reasonable laws. Became philosopher of the free market and free trade.

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Smith

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French philosophe whos idea was that the French at the time were in the vanguard of civilized thinking. He was the leading spokesman of the Enlightenment and became an active figure in the French Revolution.

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Condorcet

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Early stage in the discovery of hypnosis where people were touched by a wand, or sat in tubs, to recieve animal magnetism in the hope of curing various ills. The Royal Academy of Sciences concluded this idea was without foundation.

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Mesmerism

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Generally held Enlightenment views, well disposed towards reason, progress, toleration, and humane reforms, and respectful toward God as architect of the universe. It had the effect of bringing persons of different social classes together, somewhat harmlessly for self-improvement and the improvement of others.

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Freemasonry

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"the enlightened ones". This group in Germany was considered so dangerous that the Bavarian government suppressed it in 1786. The notion of secrecy was foreign to the enlightenment.

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Illuminati

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Written by Montesquieu, which developed 2 principal ideas. One was that forms of government varied according to climate and circumstances. The other doctrine aimed against royal absolutism was the separation and balance of powers.

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The Spirit of Laws

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The will of all the individuals fused together, in which the individuals surrender their natural liberty to one another. This Will was the sovereign, and was absolute, sacred, and inviolable.

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the General Will

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Montesquieu said that there should be a separation and balance of powers. The power should be divided between the king and a great many intermediate bodies such as parlements, provincial estates, organized nobility, chartered towns, and even the church.

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separation of powers

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"economists" who were close to the government as administrators or advisors. These men concerned themselves with fiscal and tax reform and with measures to increase the national wealth of France. They opposed guilds and promoted laissez-faire. They favored strong government, relying on it to overcome obstacles and providing inducements for the establishment of new industries.

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Physiocrats

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The main agency was thought to be the state because the right ordered government was thought to be the best guarantee of social welfare.

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the idea of progress

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Leader of France, who had a major issue with taxes. He had the nobles and those he was friends with exempted from taxes, but this made the government very weak. He called Maupeou to the chancellorship who got rid of old parlements but put new ones in their place.

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Louis XV

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(1740-1786) Leader of Prussia. He spent time peacefully, writing memoirs and histories, rehabilitating his shattered country, promoting agriculture and industry, replenishing his treasury, drilling his army, and assimilating his huge conquest of Silesia. He protected religious freedom and worked for education of children. His system was very centralized and he made all the decisions alone, and never consulted others.

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Frederick the Great

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Leader of Austria whose reign set a course of all later development of the Austrian empire and the many people in its borders. Her aim was to prevent the dissolution of the monarchy by enlarging and guaranteeing the flow of taxes and soldiers. This involved breaking the local control of territorial nobles in their diets. Her region became the largest area of free trade on the European continent. She attacked serfdom by passing laws against the abuse of peasants by their overseers and she also regularized labor obligations.

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Maria Theresa

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Austrian leader after Maria Theresa, he abolished serfdom and decreed absolute equality of taxation. He insisted on equal punishment for equal crimes whatever the class of the offender. He made many legal punishments much less cruel. He granted complete liberty of the press and toleration of all religions. He clashed often with the pope, and tried to centralize the state. He was known as the "revolutionary emperor".

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Joseph II

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(1727-1781) French philosopher who contributed to Diderot's Encyclopedie. She was known as an encyclopedists. This was the first encyclopedia to have a distinguished list of contributors or to be concieved as a positive force for social progress.

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Turgot

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The idea was secular and had no mandate from heaven and recognized no special responsibility to God or church. The leaders did many things and justified this on grounds of usefullness to society. It was also rational and reformist and the monarchs were out to reconstruct the state by the use of reason. It was an acceleration of the old centralized institution of monarchy.

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enlightened despotism

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He was called to the chancellorship and simply got rid of old parlements and made new ones. In his new parlements the judges had no property rights in their seats but became salaried officials appointed by the crown with assurances of secure tenure; and they were forbidden to reject government edicts or to pass on their constitutionality, being confined to purely judicial functions. He proposed to make laws and judicial procedure more uniform throughout the whole country.

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Maupeou parlements

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Louis XV's reputed remark which characterizes his personal attitude to conditions in France.

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"Apres moi, le deluge"

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A kind of land tax that was generally only paid by the peasants. Nobles were exempt from it on principle and officeholders and bourgeois were exempt also. This was the most important of the actual taxes.

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taille

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German who married the king of Russia, and eventually became empress herself. She worked to end serfdom in her kingdom and had a domestic plan to bring the enlightenment to Russia. She was tolerant of other religions. She was one of the main builders of Russia and her goal was to penetrate all the seas.

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Catherine the Great

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A soldier who appeared at the head of an insurrection in the Urals. He called himself the true tsar and issued an imperial manifesto proclaiming the end of serfdom and taxes and military conscription. He had many supporters but was eventually turned in and killed for treason. His rebellion was the most violent in the history of Russia.

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Pugachev

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Long time advisor and lover of Catherine. He accompanied her on her tour of the newly won Black Sea provinces, and he established many towns and fortresses in the area.

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Potemkin

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Famous phrase to mean bogus evidence of a nonexistent prosperity because Potemkin's enemies claimed that the new territories he created were nothing more than a facade.

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Potemkin Village

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A former soldier just like Pugachev who was fascinated by the rebellion and was a major supporter of it.

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Don Cossack

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A seaport that the Russians found in their new territory by the Black Sea. They got rights of this area because they defeated the Turks in the war.

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Odessa

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Leader of Poland who led a revolutionary political movement, which included even a proposed abolition of serfdom. It was crushed in the general European counterrevolution when Russian and Prussian armies again invaded Poland, defeated him, and divided what remained of the country among themselves and Austria.

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Kosciusko

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Poland reformers like those in the French revolution. Catherine the Great said she would fight Jacobinism and beat it in Poland and she destroyed the constitution of 1791.

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Jacobins

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English historian who was moderate in his political ideas. He was a writer who most resembled the French philosophes. The mood was complacency, and a self satisfaction in the glories of the unwritten Britain constitution.

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Gibbon

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Scottish philosopher who resembled the qualities of a French philosophe. His ideas were very moderate politically.

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Hume

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A journalist and member of Parliament who vehemously attacked the policies of King George III. This is partially how the reform movement began. He was vindicated when the courts pronounced the arrest of his publisher illegal, but the kings supporters expelled him from the House of Commons. He became a political hero and was later reelected 3 times to the House, which refused to seat him. His followers in 1769 founded the Supporters of the Bill of Rights. He finally was given a seat and introduced the first of many reform bills.

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Wilkes

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He became the first British governor general in India. He was so high-handed with some of the Indian princes, and made so mant enemies among jealous English residents in Bengal, that he was denounced at home, impeached, and subjected to a trial which dragged on for 7 years in the House of Lords. He was finally aquitted. He was the main author of British supremecy in India.

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Hastings

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Spokesman for Parliament. He opposed a majority of popular ideas such as universal male suffrage, and dissolution of some boroughs in which no one was really represented. He was a founder of philosophical conservatism, and was more concerned that the House of Commons should be independent and responsible than that it should be mathematically representative. He thought that the landowning interest should govern. He pleaded for a strong sense of party in opposition to royal encroachments, and argued that members of Parliament should follow in their best interests. His economical reform of 1782 got many of these things abolished.

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Burke

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Called this because certain principles of the modern deomcratic society were in one way or another affirmed. The whole area of Western civilization was transformed. The main goal was to see what ways the movements began and what was and was not democratic.

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Age of Democratic Revolutions

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This group of people revolted with French assistance in the Jacobite rising of 1745 and by invading England threatened to attack the British government in the rear as it was locked in the struggle with France. They had never really been under any govt but looked to their chiefs to tell them whom and when to fight.

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Highlanders

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This was an invasion of England that threatened to attack the British government in the rear as it was locked in the struggle with France. The British government managed to make its sovereignty effective in the Highlands and troops were quartered there. Fighting Highlanders were incorporated into newly formed Highland regiments of the British army.

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Jacobite revolution

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This idea was established in 1689 and was now being applied in the middle of the 18th century to regions where it had hertofore little effect. And it was against the authority of the British parliament that the Americans primarily rebelled.

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parliamentary sovereignty

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Wrote Common Sense, he was a figure in the French Revolution and to work for revolution in England. He detested English society for its injustices.

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Thomas Paine

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Appointed commanding general of the American army troops. This was the work of the 2nd continental congress, which dispatched an expedition to force Quebec into the revolutionary union, and entered into troops with Bourbon France.

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George Washington

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He and other members of a special committee began drafting a theoretical and historical justification for America's separation from Britain. This was from wide support in the Continental Congress.

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Thomas Jefferson

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Wisest piece of British legislation that provided a government for the newly conquered Canadian French, granting them security in their French civil law and Catholic religion and laying foundations for the British empire that was to come. It defined that boundaries of Quebec as the French would have.

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Quebec Act

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This act taxes all uses of paper, as in the newspapers and commercial and legal documents, the payment of a fee that was certified by the affixing of a stamp. It aroused violent and concerted resistance in the colonies, esp the most articulate class. It was therefore repealed in 1766.

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Stamp Act

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Written by Thomas Paine. It is a pamphlet that made his debut as a kind of international revolutionary. It identified the independence of the American colonies with the cause of liberty for all humankind. It pitted freedom against tyranny in the person of the royal brute of Great Britian. It was read everywhere in the colonies.

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Common Sense

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The first continental congress was a very loose group that lacked organization. The second was more organized and proceeded to raise an American army. The ideas of freedom from the king were very popular.

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Continental Congresses

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It was more than an announcement of secession from the empire; it was a justification of rebellion against established authority. It arraigned no one but the king. The declaration voiced the natural rights philosophy of the age.

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Declaration of Independence

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The Americans recieved a large amount of help from the French during this battle because 9/10 ths of the arms used were French. This showed how the French govt remained noninterventionist but meanwhile poured munitions into the colonies through an especially rigged-up commercial concern.

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Battle of Saratoga