Chapter 4: Levels Of Organization

Front 1

Tissues

Back 1

a group of similar cells that usually have similar embyological orgins and are specalized for a particular function

Front 2

4 Types of Tissues

Back 2

Connective, Epithelial, Nervous, Muscle

Front 3

Epithelial Tissues structure and function

Back 3

covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts. Forms glands

Front 4

Connective Tissues Structures & Function

Back 4

protects & supports the body & its organs, binds organs togeather, stores energy reserves as fat & provides immunity

Front 5

Muscle Tissue

Back 5

responsible for movement and generation of force

Front 6

Nervous Tissue

Back 6

initiates & transmits action potentials ( nerve impulses) that help coordinate body activities.

Front 7

3 Primary Germ Layers

Back 7

Ectoderm, endoderm, & mesoderm

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Cell Junctions

Back 8

pts of contact between adjacent plasma membranes

Front 9

3 Functions of Cell Junctions

Back 9

1. (Some Cells)Form fluid -tight seals between cells
2. (Other Cells)Anchor cells togeather/ to extracellular material
3. Still others act as channels, which allow ions & molecules to pass from cell to cell w/in a tissue

Front 10

General Features of Epithelial Tissues

Back 10

1. Epithelial cells are arranged in sheets, in either single/ multiple layers.
2. Epithelium consist of mostly packed cells with little extracellular materials
3. Many cell junctions are present, providing secure attachements among cells
4. An epithelial cell has an apical surface & a basal surface attached to a base membrane.
5. Epithelia adhere firmly to nearby connective tissue via a thin extracellualr layer the basement membrane.
6. Epithelial tissue is avascular; exchange of materials between epithelium & adjacent connective tissue is by diffusion.
7. Epithelia have a high capacity for reneal (a high mitotic rate)

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Functions of Epithelial

Back 11

1. Protection
2. Filteration
3. Lubrication
4. Secretion
5. Digestion
6. Absorption
7. Transportation
8. Excretion
9. Sensory Reception
10. Reproduction

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Sub-Types of Epithelial

Back 12

1. Covering & Lining Epithelium
2. Glandular Epitheleum

Front 13

Epithelial Tissues Classified by Characteristic

Back 13

1. Simple
2. Stratified
3. Pseudostratified

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Simple

Back 14

1 Layer

Front 15

Stratified

Back 15

Several Layers

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Pseudostratified

Back 16

One Layer that appears as several

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Epithelial Tissues Shapes of Cells

Back 17

1. Squamous
2. Cubodial
3. Columanr
4. Transitional

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1. Squamous
2. Cubodial
3. Columnar
4. Transitional

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1. Flat
2. Cube-like
3. Rectangular
4. Variable

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Simple Squamous Epithelial

Back 19

Consist of a single layer of flat scale like cells

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Location of Simple Squamous Epithelial

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1. Adapted for diffusion & filteration found in the lungs & kidneys
2. Found in parts of Body where their is little wear & tear
3. Endothelium which lines the heart & blood vessels
4. Mestothelium which lines the thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities & covers the organs within them

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Endothelium

Back 21

Lines the heart & blood vessels

Front 22

Mesotheilum

Back 22

lines the throacic & abdominopelvic cavities & covers the organs within them

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Simple Cubodial Epithelium structure, & Function

Back 23

consist of simple layer of cube-shpaed cells & performs the function of secretion & absorption

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Simple Columnar Epithelium

Back 24

consist of a single layer of rectangular cells & can exist in 2 forms which are nonciliated simple columnar epithelium and ciliated simple columnar epithelium

Front 25

Non-Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

Back 25

contains microvilli to increase surface area and the rate of absorption & goblet cells that secrete mucus

Front 26

Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

Back 26

contains cells with cilia, motile, hair-like processes that help to move fluids or particles along a surface

Front 27

Stratified Epithelium

Back 27

Have AT LEAST 2 LAYERS OF CELLS:
1. durable & protective tissue
2. the name of a specific kind of stratified epithelium depends on the shape of the surface cells

Front 28

Stratfied Squamous Epithelium

Back 28

consist of several layers of cells in which the top layer of cells is flat & the deeper layers of cells vary in shape from cubodial to columnar

Front 29

Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Back 29

a tough layer of keratin ( A protein resistant to friction & repels bacteria) is deposited in the surface cells

Front 30

NonKeratinzed Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Back 30

does not contain keratin & remains moist

Front 31

Papanicolaou Smear (Pap Smear)

Back 31

involves collecting samples of cells present in the secretions of the cervix & vagina for early detection of changes in the cells that might indicate cancer or a precancerous condition

Front 32

Stratified Cubodial Epithelium

Back 32

a rare tissue consisting of 2/ more layers of cube-shaped cells whose function is mainly protective

Front 33

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Back 33

consist of several layers of cells of which only the top layers is columnar. (Rare & the function is to protect and secrete)

Front 34

Transitional Epithelium

Back 34

consist of several layers of cells whose appearance is variable

Front 35

Transitional Epitleium Function & Location

Back 35

1.capable of stretching & thus permits distention of an organ

2. Lines the urinary Bladder & portions of the ureters and the uretha

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Pseudostratified Epithelieum

Back 36

ONLY 1 LAYER BUT APPEARS AS MANY

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Psedostratfied Epithelium Inner Location

Back 37

1. All cells are attached to the basement membrane but some do not reach the apical surface.

Front 38

Pseudostratified cilated columnar Epithelium

Back 38

cells that reach the surface either secrete mucus (goblet cells) or bear cilia that sweep away mucus and trapped foreighn particles

Front 39

Pseudostratified nonciliated columnar epithelium

Back 39

contiains no cilia or goblet cells

Front 40

Gland

Back 40

a single cell or a mass of epithelial cells adapted for secretion

Front 41

Endocrine Glands

Back 41

ductless, their secretory products (hormones) enter the extracellular fluid & diffuse into the blood

Front 42

Exocinre Glands

Back 42

(sweat, oil, & digestive glands) secret their products into ducts that empty @ the surface of covering & lining epithelium/ directly onto a free surface

Front 43

Connective Tissue

Back 43

most abundant & widely distributed tissue in the body

Front 44

General Features

Back 44

1. Consist of 2 basic elements: a) cells b) extracellular matrix (formed from groud substance & fibers). Matrix is abundant w/ relativity few cells and tends to prevent tissue cells from touching 1 another.
2. Matrix of a connective tissue, which may be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, fibrous, or calcified, is usually secreted by the connective tissue cells & adjacent cells & determines the tissues qualities
3. Unlike Epithelia, connective tissues do not occur on free surfaces.
4. Unlike Epithelium, connective tissue is highly vascular ( EXCEPT CARTILAGE & TENDONS)
5. Except for cartilage, connective tissue, like epithelium, has a nerve supply
2.

Front 45

Mesenchyme

Back 45

cells in connective tissue

Front 46

-blast

Back 46

immature cells

Front 47

-cyte

Back 47

mature cells; most mature cells have reduced capacity for cell division and matrix formation & are mostly involved in maintaning the matrix

Front 48

TYPES OF CELLS FOUND IN VAROUS CONNCETIVE TISSUES

Back 48

1. Fibroblasts
2. Macrophages
3. Plasma Cells
4. Mast Cells
5. Adipocytes
6. White Blood Cells

Front 49

Fibroblasts

Back 49

secrete fibers & matrix

Front 50

Macrophages aka Hisiocytes

Back 50

which develop from monocytes & are phagocytic

Front 51

Plasma Cells

Back 51

which develop into antibody- produces B lymphocytes/ B cells

Front 52

Mast Cells

Back 52

which are abundant alongside blood vessels & produces histamine

Front 53

Adipocytes aka Fat Cells

Back 53

which stores energy in the form of fat

Front 54

White Blood Cells

Back 54

Leukocytes

Front 55

Ground Substnace & Fibers

Back 55

deposited in the space between the cells comprises the matrix of connective tissues

Front 56

Substances found in the Ground Substnace

Back 56

made up of hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate

Front 57

Ground Substances Functions

Back 57

1. Supports
2. Binds
3. Provides a medium for the exchange of materials between the blood & cells
4. Active influencing cell functions

Front 58

Chondroitin sulfate and glucosmaine have been used to treat _____ disease.

Back 58

Joint

Front 59

Fibers in the matrix provide _______ and _______for tissues

Back 59

1. strength
2. Tissues

Front 60

3 Types of Fibers embedded in the matrix between cells of connective tissues

Back 60

1. Collagen Fibers
2. Elastic Fibers
3. Reticular Fibers

Front 61

Collagen Fibers

Back 61

a)composed of protien collagens
b) very tough & resistant to stretching
c) allow flexiblitlity in tissue
d) found in the bone, cartilage, tendons, & ligaments

Front 62

Elastic Fibers

Back 62

a) composed of the protien elastin
b) provide strength & stretching capacity
c) Found in the skin, blood vessels, & lungs

Front 63

Reticular Fibers

Back 63

a) consisting of vollagen & glycoprotien
b) provide support in the walls of blood vessels
c) form a strong, supporting network around fat cells, nerve fibers, & skeletal & smooth muscle fibers

Front 64

Marfan Syndrome

Back 64

results in abnormal development of elastic fibers

Front 65

Embryonic Connective Tissue

Back 65

connective tissue that is present primarily in the embry/ fetus

Front 66

Mesenchyme

Back 66

found almost exclusively in the embryo is the tissue form from which all other connective tissue eventually arises

Front 67

Mucous Connective Tissue

Back 67

whartons jelly, found in the umbilical cord of the fetus

Front 68

Mesenchyme

Back 68

mature connective tissue exists in new born has cell differentiatied, and does not change after birth

Front 69

Mesenchyme is subdivided into several kinds

Back 69

1. Connective Tissue Proper
2. Cartilage
3. bone tissue
4. Blood

Front 70

Mesenchyme is divided into subtypes

Back 70

1. Loose Connective Tissues
2. Dense Connective Tissues
3. Cartlidage
4. Bone
5. Blood

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Loose Connective Tissues consist of all 3 types of fibers, several types of cells, & semifluid ground substnaces`

Back 71

1. Areolar Connective Tissue
2. Adipose Tissue
3. Reticular Connective Tissue

Front 72

Areolar Connective Tissue

Back 72

prime example of loose connective tissue

Front 73

Features of Loose Connective Tissue

Back 73

a) ground substance aids the passage of nutrients from the blood vessels of the connective tissue into adjacent cells and tissues
b) found in subcutaneous layer

Front 74

Adipose Tissue

Back 74

consist of adipocytes which are specialized for storage of triglycerides

Front 75

Adipose Tissue Function & Location

Back 75

a) Found in areolar connective tissue

b) Reduces heat loss through skin, serves as an energy reserve, supports, portects, & generates considerable heat to help maintain proper body temperature in newborns (brown fat)

c) Liposuction may result in medical problems

Front 76

Reticular Connective Tissue

Back 76

consist of fine interlacing reticular fibers & reticular cells

Front 77

Reticular Connective Tissue Functions & Locations

Back 77

a) forms the strom of certain organs

b) Helps bind together the cells of smooth muscle

Front 78

Dense Connective Tissue

Back 78

contains more numerous, thicker, & dense fibers but considerably fewer cells than loose connective tissue

Front 79

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Back 79

consist of bundles of collagen fibers in a regular & orderly, parallel arrangement that confers great strength

Front 80

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Back 80

a)contains collagen fibers that are irregular arranged

b) found in parts of the body where tensions are exerted in various directions

c) occurs usually in sheets such as dermis of the skin

d) found in heart valves, perichondrium, tissue surrounding cartilage, and peristeum

Front 81

Elastic Connective Tissue

Back 81

a) consist of elastic fibers & fibroblasts

b) Quite strong & can recoil back to its original shape after being stretched

c) found in lung tissue & elastic fibers

Front 82

Cartilage

Back 82

a) consist of dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate

b) Strengthens due to its collagen fibers, resilience, to the chondroitin sulfate

Front 83

Lacunae in the Matrix

Back 83

chondrcytes occur with spaces

Front 84

Perichondrium

Back 84

a) surrounded by a dense irregular connective tissue membrane

b) unlike connective tissue, cartliage has no blood vessels or nerves EXCEPT IN PERICHONDRIUM

Front 85

3 TYPES OF CARTILAGE

Back 85

1. Hyaline Cartilage
2. Fibrocartilage
3. Elastic Cartilage

Front 86

Hyaline Cartilage

Back 86

a)the most abundant but weakest type of cartilage & has fine collagen fibers embedded in a gel-type matrix

b) affords flexiblitlity & supports at the joints, reduces friction, & absorbs shock

Front 87

Fibrocartlidge

Back 87

a)contains bundles of collagen fibers in the matrix

b)IT DOES NOT HAVE A PERICHONDRIUM

c)combinding strength & rigidity ( the strongest of all 3 types)

Front 88

Elastic Cartilage

Back 88

contains a threadlike network of elastic fibers w/in the matrix

Perichondrium is present

provides strength & elasticity & maintains the shape of certian organs

Front 89

Growth of Cartilage

Back 89

1. Interstitial (Endogenous)
2. Growth (Expansion from with)
3. Appositional (Exogenous)
4. Growth ( from without)

Front 90

Bone aka Osseous Tissue

Back 90

consist of a matrix contaning mineral salts, collagenous fibers, & cells called osteocytes

Front 91

Bone

Back 91

compact/ spongy bone. depending on how the matrix & cells are organized

Front 92

4 Basic Units of Compact Bone ( Osteon aka Haversian System)

Back 92

1. Lamella
2. Lacunae
3. Canaliculi
4. Central Harversian canal

Front 93

Lamella

Back 93

concentric rings of matrix that consist of mineral salts that give bone its hardness & collagen fibers that give bone its strength

Front 94

Lacunae

Back 94

small spaces between lamella that contian mature bone cells calle oseocytes

Front 95

Canaliculi

Back 95

minute canals containing processes of oseocytes that provide routs for nutrient and waste transport

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Central Harversian canal

Back 96

contains blood vessels and nerves

Front 97

Trabulae

Back 97

has spongy bone rather than osteons

Front 98

Function of Bone

Back 98

1. Supports
2. Protects
3. Helps Provide Movement
4. Store Minerals
5. Houses Blood-Forming Tissue

Front 99

Liquid Connective Tissue

Back 99

1. Blood
2. Lymph

Front 100

Blood in Liquid Connective Tissue

Back 100

a) consist of a liquid matrix caleld plasma & formed elements

b) Formed elements including erythrocytes, leukocytes, & thrombocytes

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Erythorcytes

Back 101

Red Blood cells that transports respiatory gases

Front 102

Leukocytes

Back 102

White Blood Cells that are involved with phagocytosis, immunity, & allergic reations

Front 103

Thrombocytes

Back 103

Platelets is the function in the blood clotting.

Front 104

Lymph

Back 104

Interstitial fluid flowing in lymph vessels

Front 105

Membranes

Back 105

are flate sheets of pliable tissue that cover/ line a part of the body

Front 106

3 Types of Epithelial membranes layer and an underlying connective tissue layer

Back 106

1. Mucous Membranes
2. Serous Membranes
3. Cutaneous Membrane/ skin

Front 107

Synovial Mmebranes

Back 107

line joint cavities, bursae, & tendon sheaths

do not contain epithelium

Secrete & lubricate synovial fluid

Front 108

Muscle Tissue

Back 108

consist of fibers (cells) that are modified for contraction & thus provid motion, maintenance of posture & heat production

Front 109

3 Types of Subdivided Muscle Tissues

Back 109

1. Skeletal Muscle
2. Cardiac Muscle
3. Smooth Muscle

Front 110

Skeletal Muscle

Back 110

tissues attached to bones, straited, & voluntary

Front 111

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Back 111

forms most of the heart wall,straited, usuanlly involuntary

Front 112

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Back 112

found in the walls of hollow internal strucutures

nonstraited, usually involuntary

provides constriction of blood vessels & airways, propulsion of foods through the gastrointestinal trace & contraction of the urinary bladder, & gallbladder)

Front 113

Nervous Tissues composed of ONLY 2 PRINCIPAL KINDS OF CELLS:

Back 113

1. Neurons
2. Neuroglia

Front 114

Neurons

Back 114

nerves cells

Front 115

Neurologia

Back 115

Protective & Support Cells

Front 116

Most neurons consist of a cell body and tow types of processes called _____ and ______.

Back 116

1. Dendrites
2. Axons

Front 117

Neurons

Back 117

a)sensitive to stimuli
b)convert stimuli into nerve impulses
c)conduct nerve impulses to other neurons
d)muscle fibers/ glands

Front 118

Neuroglia

Back 118

protects, supports, & are sites of tumors of the nervous system

Front 119

Excitable Cells

Back 119

a) got their name due to they can carry electrical signals

b) Neurons & muscle cells respond to neurotransmitters which cause the cells to generate the signals

Front 120

Tissue

Back 120

repair the process that replaces worn out, damaged, or dead cells

Front 121

Aging & Tissues

Back 121

a) tissues of young ppl repair rapidly & efficiently ( the process slows down with aging)

b) Younger body is generally in a better nutritional state, its tissues have a better blood supply, & its cells have a faster metabolic rate

Front 122

Cytology

Back 122

study of cell structure, & cell physiology is the study of cell function

Front 123

Cell

Back 123

a basic living, structural, & functional unit of the body

Front 124

PARTS OF A CELL

Back 124

a) generalized view of the cell is a composite of many different cells in the body
b) no single cell includes all of the features seen in the generalized cell

Front 125

Cells that can be divided into 3 principal parts for ease of study

Back 125

1. Plasma (cell) Membrane
2. Cytoplasm
a) Cytosol
b) organelles (except for the nucleus)
3. Nucleus

Front 126

Plasma Membrane

Back 126

a flexible, sturdy barrier that surrounds & contains the cytoplasm of a cell
a)The fluid mosaic model
describes its structure
b) Membrane consist of
proteins in a sea of lipids

Front 127

Lipid Bilayers

Back 127

1. Basic framework of the plasma membrane & is made up of 3 types of lipid molecules:
a) Phospholipids
b) cholesterol
c) glycolipids

2. Bilayer arrangement occurs due to the lipids are amphipathic molecules.
3. The have both polar (charged) & nonpolar (non charged) parts w/ a polar (head) of the phospholipid pointing out and the non polar (tail) pointing toward the center of the membrane

Front 128

Membrane protiens are divided into integral & perpiheral protiens

Back 128

1. intergral protiens
2. Peripheral protiens

Front 129

Intergral Protiens

Back 129

extended into/. across the entire lipid bilayer among the fatty acid tails of the phospholipid molecules

Front 130

Periphreal protiens

Back 130

found at the inner/ outer surface of the membrane and can be stripped away from the membrane w/out disturbing membrane intergrity.

Front 131

Intergral Membrane protiens are amphipathic

Back 131

a) those that are stretch across the entire bilayer & project on both sides of the membrane are termed transmembrane protiens

b) many integral protiens are glycoproteins