Chapter 3: Biology Of Psycholgy

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Glial Cells

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help neurons communicate with one another by directing thier growth, keeping thir chemical environment stable, providing energy, and helping to restore damage.

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Axons

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usually carry signals from the neuronal cell body out to the synapse, where communication with other nerve cells takes place. Generally, each neuron only has one axon

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dendrites

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branches of the neuron that usually receive signals from the axons of other neurons and carry those signals to the neuron's cell body. Each neuron can have many dendrites

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Action potentials

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occur when the neuron becomes depolarized and sodium rushes into the axon. Opening one sodium gate causes the gate next to it to open, which causes the next one to open, and so forth, all the way down the length of the axon. Action potentials are all-or-nothing activities; the cell either fires at full strength or does not fire at all

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Neurotransmitters

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chemicals taht carry a signal from the presynaptic cell across teh synapse to the receptors on the postsynaptic cell

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receptors

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located on the dendrites of the postsynaptic cell, are stimulated when neurotransmitters fit into them, like a key fits a lock

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postsynaptic potential

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occurs when the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell is changed

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excitatory postsynaptic potential(EPSP)

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causes the postsynaptic membrane to become depolarized, thus increasing the probability that a neuron will fire an action potential. The strength of an EPSP weakens as it travels down the dendrite

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inhibitory postsynaptic potential(IPSP)

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causes the postsynaptic membrane to become hyperpolarized, thus decreasing the chances a neuron will fire an action potential. The strength of an IPSP weakens as it travels down the dendrite

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neural networks

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organized groups of interconnected neurons in the brain and spinal cord. These networks communicate with one another and are parts of larger network systems.

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sensory systems

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include vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell, provide us with input about the environment

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motor systems

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influence musles and other organs to respond to the environment in some way

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peripheral nervous system

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major division of the nervous system that is not encased in bone. It has two major subdivisions, the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

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central nervous system

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the major division of the nervous system that is encased in bone and includes the brain and spinal cord. It's primary function is to process the information provided by the sensory systems and to decide on appropriate courses of action for the motor system

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somatic nervous system

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part of the peripheral nervous system, transmits information from the senses to the CNS and carries signals from the CNS to the muscles that move the skeleton

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autonomic nervous system

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part of the peripheral nervous system, carries messages back and forth between the CNS and the organs and glands

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Nuclei

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collections of cell bodies

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Fiber tracts or pathways

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collections of axons that travel together in bundles, interconnecting nuclei

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spinal cord

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part of the central nervous system, receives signals from the somatic system in the periphery, such as vision, and relays them to the brain via fiber tracts within the spinal cord. The brain then relays signals to the muscles via fiber tracts in the spinal cord

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Hindbrain

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a major subdivision of the brain, includes the medulla, reticular formation, and cerebellum. The hindbrain, an extension of the spinal cord, is housed in the skull and involved in controlling vital functions

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medulla

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located in the hindbrain. It helps to regulate blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing

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reticular formation

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not a well-defined area of brain tissue but a collection of nuclei and fibers that forms a network of cells throughout the hindbrain and midbrain. The reticular formation is involved in arousal and attention

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locus coeruleus

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a small group of cells that may be involved in the state of vigilance. Activity in the reticular formation stimulates the locus coeruleus

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cerebellum

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located in the hindbrain. It controls fine motor coordination

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midbrain

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includes the striatum and the substantia nigra, is located between the hindbrain and the forebrain. Sensory information is integrated in the midbrain to produce the smooth initiation of movement

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substantia nigra

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part of the midbrain and assists in the smooth initiation of movement

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striatum

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part of the cerebrum and interacts with the substantia nigra to control the smooth initiation of movement

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forebrain

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composed of the diencephalon and the cerebrum, is the most highly developed brain structure. It is responsible for the most complex aspects of behavior and mental processes

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thalamus

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located in the forebrain. This region processes and relays sensory information on its way to higher centers of the brain

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hypothalamus

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located in the forebrain. It regulates hunger, thirst, and sex drive, and is involved in emotion

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suprachiasmatic nuclei

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part of the hypothalamus, determines our biological rhythms, acting much like an internal alarm clock

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amygdala

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part of the limbic system, plays an important role in combining the features of stimuli from two sensory modalities

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hippocampus

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also part of the limbic system, is involved in learning and storing new pieces of information or new memories

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limbic system

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contained in several brain areas and is involved in emotion, memory, and some thought processes. Severe degeneration of limbic system structures is found in Alzheimer's patients

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cerebral hemispheres

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constitute the outermost part of the cerebrum. Each hemisphere makes up one-half of the top of the brain.

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cerebral cortex

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the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres is divided into 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. the cortex is also divided into three funcctional areas: the sensory cortex, the motor cortex, and the association cortex

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sensory cortex

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located int he parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, receives information from different senses, including touch, vision, and hearing

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motor cortex

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located in the frontal lobe, controls all voluntary movement

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association cortex

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pertains to all lobes of the cortex. These regions of cortex receive information from more than one sense or combine sensory and motor information. These are the areas that perfrom complex cognitive tasks such as associating words with images and other abstract thinking

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corpus callosum

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connects the two cerebral hemispheres. Without the corpus callosum, the two hemispheres could not communicate regarding thier respective activities

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lateralized task

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a task that is performed more efficiently by one hemisphere than by the other. The left hemisphere is better at logical reasoning and language skills, whereas the right hemisphere is superior in musical and artistic abilities and spatial reasoning

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plasticity

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the brain's ability to strengthen neural connections at synapses and to establish new synapses

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neurotransmitter system

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a set of neurons that communicates with the same neurotransmitter. A neurotransmitter system may control an aspect of behavior such as memory

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Acetylcholine

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The neurotransmitter found in the cholinergic system, is used by neurons in the peripheral and central nervous systems. It assists in the contraction of muscles and the formation of new memories

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norepinephrine

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used in the adrenergic system. It is involved in arousal, learning, and moods

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serotonin

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a neurotransmitter that regulates sleep, moods, and appetite

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dopamine

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a neurotransmitter that's used in the substantia nigra and striatum to control movement. Dopaminergic neurons also play a role in the experience of pleasure

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GABA

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an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is involved in a variety of behaviors and mental processes. Malfunctioning GABA systems are associated with severe anxiety, Huntington's disease, and epilepsy

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Glutamate

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an excitatory neurotransmitter that helps signals cross the synapse more efficiently

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Endorphins

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naturally occuring opiate-like neurotransmitters that modify pain signals being sent to the brain such that perceived pain is reduced

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endocrine system

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made up of cells that communicate with one another. A wide variety of behaviors and mental processes are influenced by this system. Hormones, traveling via the bloodstream, affect coordinated systems of target tissues and organs by producing such responses as the fight-or-flight syndrome

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glands

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the structures that make up the endocrine system, secrete hormones

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hormones

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chemicals that when released by the glands of the endocrine system, travel via the cloodstream and communicate with other cells, thus influencing behavior and mental processes