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211 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the functions of a cell |
Cell metabolism and energy use Synthesis of molecules Communication Reproduction and inheritance |
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What is cell metabolism and energy use |
Cell metabolism is all energy reactions in a cell often involving energy transfers meaning energy is released by one reaction and stored for another. During some reactions energy is released as heat helping maintain body temperature |
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What is meant by synthesis of molecules |
Different cells of the body synthesis or produce various types of molecules including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. The structural characteristics of cells determine the types of molecules they produce |
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What is communication among cells |
Communication using chemical and electrical signals. |
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How do we see cells |
Light microscope Electron microscope |
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What is a light microscope |
Allows us to visualize general features of the cell such as nucleus with limited magnification |
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Types of electron microscopes |
Scanning electron microscope- reveals surface of internal structures Transmission electron microscope- allows us to see through parts of the cell. |
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What is the plasma membrane |
The outermost component of the cell. Also known as lipids bilayer composed of phospholipids and cholesterol. Proteins extend across or are embedded in either surface of the lipid bilayer |
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What are the functions of the lipid bilayer |
The outer boundary of the cell separating the intracellular and extracellular substances. Semipermeable controlling the entry and exit of substances into the cell. |
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What is membrane potential |
An electrical charge difference across the plasma membrane resulting from ion movement in and out of the cell. More positive charged cells outside plasma membrane and more negative charged ions and proteins inside. |
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Is the outside of the plasma membrane positively or negatively charged |
Positive |
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Glycolipids |
Carbohydrates combined with lipids |
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Glycoproteins |
Carbohydrates combined with proteins |
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Glycocalyx |
The collection of glycolipids, glycoproteins, and carbohydrates on the outer layer of the plasma membrane. |
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Predominant lipids of the plasma membrane |
Phospholipids and cholesterol |
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Phospholipids in the plasma membrane |
Form a lipid bilayer with a polar hydrophilic head that are exposed to the fluids of the cell, and a nonpolar hydrophobic tail that face each other in the interior of the plasma membrane |
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Phospholipid bilayer |
Double layer of phospholipid molecules |
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Fluid mosaic model |
Describes the plasma membrane as highly flexible and can change it's shape and composition through time. |
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Why is the fluid nature of the lipid bilayer important |
The lipid bilayer acts as a dense liquid in which other molecules such as proteins are suspended. It provides an important means of distributing molecules within the plasma membrane. Any slight damage can be repaired because phospholipids tend to resemble around damaged sites and enclose them. Also it enables membranes to fuse with one another. |
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Why is cholesterol important in the plasma membrane |
Limits the movement of phospholipids providing stability |
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What are the types of functions for proteins found in the plasma membrane |
Marker molecules Attachment proteins Transport proteins Receptor proteins Enzymes |
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Classification of proteins found in the plasma membrane |
Integral membrane proteins Peripheral membrane proteins |
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Integral membrane proteins |
Penetrate deep into the lipid bilayer, in many cases extending from one surface to the other. |
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Peripheral membrane proteins |
Attached to either the inner or outer surfaces of lipid bilayer |
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Marker molecules |
Cell surface molecules that allow cells to identify other cells or molecules. Wither glycoproteins or glycolipids. |
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Attachment proteins |
integral proteins that allow cells to attach to other cells or extracellular molecules and even intracellular molecules. Two examples cadherins or integrins |
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Cadherins |
Attach cells to other cells |
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Integrins |
Proteins that attach cells to extracellular molecules. Function in pairs which interact with both intracellular and extracellular molecules and also function in cell communication. |
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Transport proteins |
Integral proteins that allow ions or molecules to move from one side of the plasma membrane to the other. 3 characteristics important to their function. Specificity, competition, saturation |
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Specificity |
Each transport protein binds to and transports only certain type of molecule or ion. |
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Competition |
Molecules with similar shape binding to the transport protein. The substance that binds more readily is taken. |
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Saturation |
Rate of movement of molecules across the membrane is limited to the number of available transport proteins. |
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3 classes of transport proteins |
Channel Carrier Atp powered pumps |
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Channel proteins |
One or more integral membrane proteins arranged so that they form a tiny channel through the plasma membrane. Include leak ion channels and lion gated ion channels |
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Leak ion channels |
Nongated channels that are always open and responsible for the plasma membranes permeability to ions when it is at rest. |
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Gated ion channels |
Open and close depending on certain conditions of the cell. Some open and close in response to chemical binding to the ion channel |
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Ligand |
Generic term for any chemical signal molecule used by cells to communicate with each other |
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Ligand gated channels |
Ion channels that respond to ligand |
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Voltage gated ion channels |
Gated ion channels that open or close based on a change in membrane potential |
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Cystic fibrosis |
Genetic disorder that affects the chloride in channel. Failure of ion channels to function causes the affected cells to produce thick viscous secretions. |
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What determines a channels specifity |
The size and charge within the channel |
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Carrier proteins |
Transporters integral membrane proteins that move ions or molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other. Change shape as specific ion is binding then resumes shape and availability when done. |
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Classification of carrier proteins |
Uniport Symport Antiport |
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Uniport |
Movement of one specific ion or molecule across membrane. Uniporters |
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Symport |
Cotransport the movement of two different ions or molecules in the same direction across the plasma membrane. Symporters |
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Antiport |
Counter transport movement of two different ions or molecules in opposite direction across the plasma membrane |
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Atp powered pumps |
Transport proteins that require cellular energy to move specific ion or molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other. Have binding sites to which specific ions can bind and a binding site for atp. The breakdown of atp releases energy changes the shape of the protein which moves it across. |
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Receptor proteins |
Membrane proteins or glycoproteins that have an exposed receptor site on the outer surfaces of cells |
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Receptors linked to channel proteins |
Some membrane bound receptors help form ligand gated ion channels that are composed of proteins that span the plasma membrane. When chemical signals or ligands bind to these receptors the combination alters the three dimensional shape of the protein of the ion channel causing the channel to open or close. The result is a change in permeability of the plasma membrane to the speciffic ion going through. |
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Receptors linked to g protein complex |
The g protein acts as a intermediary between a receptor and other cellular proteins the g protein interacts with the receptor protein when a chemical signal is bound to it. When not interacting the g protein has GDP attached to it. |
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Three proteins of g protein complex |
Alpha Betta Gamma |
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An activated subunit can stimulate a cells response by |
Means of intracellular chemical signals Opening of ion channels in the plasma membrane Activation of enzymes associated with the plasma membrane |
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Enzymes |
Catalyze chemical reaction on wither the inner or outer surfaces of the plasma membrane |
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Passive membrane transport |
Cell does not expend metabolic energy. Includes diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. |
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Types of passive membrane transport |
Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated diffusion |
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Diffusion |
Movement of solutes from an area of higher solutes concentration to an area of lower concentration. Product of constant random motions of all atoms, molecules, or atoms in a solution. |
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Concentration gradient |
The concentration difference between two points divided by the difference between the two points. |
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Rate of diffusion is influenced by |
Magnitude of concentration gradient, the temperature of a solution, the size of diffusing molecules and viscosity of a solvent. Increase as concentration gradient increases. |
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Viscosity |
Measure of how a fluids resistance to flow. A fluid with low viscosity flows more easily. |
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Importance of diffusion |
How substances move between the extracellular and intracellular fluids in the body. Substances that can diffuse through either the lipid bilayer or the membrane channels can pass through the plasma membrane |
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Osmosis |
Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Water diffuses across lipid bilayer. |
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Aquaporins |
Water channel proteins that open and close to adjust membrane to permeability to water. |
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In osmosis why does water diffuse from less concentration solution to more concentrated |
Solution concentration is defined in terms of solution concentrations not water. |
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Facilitated diffusion |
Mediated transport in which Carrier proteins combine with substances and move them across the plasma membrane. Substances always moved from higher to lesser concentration. This occurs because some substances are too large to pass through membrane channels and too polar to dissolve in the lipid bilayer are transported |
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Isosmotic |
Solutions with the same osmotic pressure |
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Hyperosmotic |
When one solution has a greater concentration of solute particles and therefore a greater osmotic pressure. |
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Hyposmotic |
More diluted solution with lower osmotic pressure. |
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Isotonic |
A solution that when a cell is placed the cell does not shrink or swell |
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Tonicity |
A cell in isotonic solution when the shape of the cell remains constant maintaining internal tension or tone |
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Hypertonic |
A solution that when the cell is placed in water moves out of the cell by osmosis. |
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Hypotonic |
If a cell is placed into a solution and water moves into the cell by osmosis |
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Crenation |
Process of water moving by osmosis from the cell to the solution |
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Lysis |
When a cell swells to the point of rupture |
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Osmotic |
Concentration of the solution |
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Tonic |
Tendency of cells to swell or shrink |
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Mediated transport |
A membrane transport process by which membrane transport proteins mediate or assist the movement of large water soluable molecules or electrically charged molecules or ions across the plasma membrane |
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Active transport |
Mediated transport process that requires energy from ATP. ATP powered pumps combine with substances and move them across the plasma membrane. Substance can be moved from lower concentration to higher and exhibit characteristics of specifity, saturation, and competition. |
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Types of active transport mechanisms |
Active transport Secondary transport |
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When is active transport uses |
Substances too large to pass through channels and too polar to dissolve in the lipid bilayer. Substances that are accumulated in concentrations higher on one side of the membrane than on the other transported |
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Secondary active transport |
Involves the active transport of an ion out of the cell establishing a concentration gradient with a higher concentration outside of the cell. The tendency for ions to move back into the cell (down concentration gradient) provides energy necessary to move a different ion into the cell |
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Vesicular transport |
Movement of larger volumes of substances across the plasma membrane through the formation or release of vesicles. Membrane bound sacs in the cytoplasm |
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Types of vesicular transport |
Endocytosis Exocytosis |
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Endocytosis |
The plasma membrane forms a vesicle around the substance to be transported and the vesicle is taken into the cell. Requires atp. In receptor mediated endocytosis specific substances are ingested. |
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2 types of endocytosis |
Phagocytosis Pinocytosis |
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Phagocytosis |
Cell eating. Eliminate harmful substances in the body. Solid particles. |
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Pinocytosis |
Cell drinking contain molecules dissolved in liquid rather than particles. Molecules that dissolve in liquid |
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Receptor mediated endocytosis |
Receptor sites combine only with certain molecules. Increases rate at which the cells take up a specific substance |
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Hypercholesterolemia |
Common genetic disorder characterized by the reduction in or absence of low density lipoprotein receptors on cell surfaves. Cells not regulated too much cholesterol produced |
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Exocytosis |
Cells release material. Materials manufactured by the cell are packaged in secretory vesicles that fused with the plasma membrane and release their contacts to the outside of the cell. Proteins and other water soluable molecules are transported out of cells. |
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Cytoplasm |
The cellular material outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane. Made half of cytosol and half organelles. |
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Cytosol |
Fluid portion of cytoplasm. Is a collid. Many of these proteins are enzymes that catalyze the breakdown of molecules for energy or synthesis of sugars, fatty acids, nucleotides, amino acids, and other molecules. |
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Cytoskeleton |
Supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other organelles in place. Also responsible for changes in cell shape and movement of organelles |
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Three groups of cytoskeleton |
Microtubules Actin filaments Filaments |
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Microtubules |
Hollow tubes composed primarily of protein units called tubulin. Help provide support and structure in the cytoplasm of the cell, much like internal scaffolding. Involved in cell division and in the transport of intracellular materials. |
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Actin filaments |
Microfilaments. They form bundles, sheets, or networks in the cytoplasm. Provide structure to cytoplasm and mechanical support for microvilli. Support plasma membrane and define the shape of the cell. Changes of in cell shape involves the breakdown of reconstruction of actin filaments |
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Intermediate filaments |
Protein fibers that provide mechanical strength to cells. |
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Cytoplasmic inclusions |
Aggregates of chemicals either produced or taken in by the cell. |
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Lipochromes |
Pigment that increase with age |
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Organelles |
Structures within the cell that are specialized for specific function. Individual work stations within the cells |
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Nucleus |
Large membrane bound structure usually located in center of cell. Consists of nucleoplasm Nuclear envelope Nuclear pores. |
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Nuclear envelope |
Two membranes separated by space. Inner and outer membranes fuse to form the nuclear pores. |
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Nuclear pores |
What molecules use to move in and out of nucleus. |
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Dna |
Found in nucleus large molecule that doesn't leave |
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Chromosomes |
Structures containing dna and proteins like histones |
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Histones |
Important for structural organization of dna |
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Chromatin |
Delicate filaments of chromosomes that are in nucleus. During cell division they become densley coiled forming compact chromosomes. |
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Dna determines the structural and functional characteristics of a cell by |
Specifying structure of proteins through specifying their amino acid sequence. |
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Rna |
Leaves the nucleus through the nuclear pores. Rrna, mrna,trna. |
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Gene |
Region of a DNA molecule that specifies RNA molecule. |
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Nucleolus |
Dense region within nucleus with no surrounding membrane. Usually one per nucleus. Where subunits for ribosomes are manufactured so contains portions of chromosomes that contain DANA from which rRNA is produced. |
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Ribosomes. |
Sites of proteins synthesis. Each composed of large and small subunit. rRNA and proteins. Some attached to the endoplasmic reticulum where others are distributed freely throughout the cytoplasm. Serves as site of protein synthesis |
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Free ribosomes |
Synthesize proteins used inside the cell |
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Endoplasmic reticulum |
Continuous with the nuclear envelope a series of membranes distributed throughout the cytoplasm. Broad flattened interconnecting sacs and tubules. Smooth and rough |
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Cisternae |
Isolated interior space of endoplasmic reticulum |
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Rough endoplasmic reticulum |
Ribsomes attach. Site where proteins are produced and modified for use as an integral part of membrane and secretion into extracellular soace. |
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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum |
No attached ribosomes. Manufactures lipids and carbs. Also participates in detoxification |
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Detoxification |
Process by which an enzyme act on chemicals and drugs to change their structure and resume their toxicity. |
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Golgi apparatus |
Composed of flattened membraneous sacs containing cisternae stacked on top of each other. Packager. Modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use. |
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Secretory vesicles |
Membrane bound that pinch off the Golgi and move to the surface of the cell. They fuse with the plasma membrane and the contents are released by exterior exocytosis. The membranes then incorporated to the plasma membrane. Contents not released until cell receives a chemical signal. |
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Lysosomes |
Membrane bound vesicles that form at the Golgi containing a variety of hydrolytic enzymes that function in the intracellular digestive system. Vesicles taken into the cell fuse with lysosomes. Also autophagy |
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Autophagy |
Process by which organelles of a cell are digested that are no longer functional. |
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Perioxisomes |
Membrane bound vesicles that are smaller than lysosomes that break down fatty and amino acids producing hydrogen peroxide as a toxic by product. Also contains catalase. Cells that are active in detoxification have many of these |
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Catalase |
Breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen eliminating toxic substances in the body |
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Proteasomes |
Large protein complexes containing enzymes that break down and recycle other proteins within the cell. No membrane but are a collection of specific proteins forming a barrel like structures. The inner surface has enzyme regions that break down proteins. Other proteins at the end of the barrel regulate which proteins are taken in for recycling. Breaks down proteins in cytoplasm |
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Mitochondria |
Organelles that provide the majority of energy for the cell. Cells power plants. Dynamic and constantly changing shape and number as they split and fuse with each other. Major site for ATP production. E |
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Structure of mitochondria |
Inner and outer membrane separated by inner membrane space. Outer membrane has smooth contour but inner has cristae and inside called matrix |
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Cristae |
Numerous inner foldings that project like shelves |
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Matrix |
Material located inside inner membrane |
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Function of mitochondria |
Complex series of mitochondrial enzymes systems form two major systems responsible for most ATP synthesis. Cells with greater energy requirement have more mitochondria with more cristae |
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What else does mitochondria contain |
DNA and ribosomes but mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes are much different than the nucleus. The proteins found in mitochondria are separate from rest of cell |
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Centrioles |
Located in the centrosome. Two im each unless preparing to divide. The wall consists of triplets of parallel microtubules serves as centers for microtubule formation determines cell polarity during cell division and form the basal bodies of cilia and flagella |
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Centrosome |
Specialized zone of cytoplasm close to the nucleus |
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Spindle fibers |
Microtubules that extend in all directions from the centrosome. Great and shrinks until it comes in contact with a chromosome to bind with all of them during cell division. |
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Cilia |
Structures that project from the surface of cells and capable of movement. The shaft is enclosed in the plasma membrane and contains two centrally located microtubules and 9 peripheral pairs of fused microtubules. |
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When does cilia move |
When microtubules move past each other and requires ATP |
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Dynein arma |
Proteins connecting adjacent pairs of microtubules in the cilia that push microtubules past each other |
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Basal body |
Modified centrole at base of cilia |
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Flagella |
Similar to cilia but longer and move the whole cell not just small particles past. |
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Microvilli |
Increases cells surface area foe absorption and secretion modified to form sensory receptors Do not move and supported with actin filaments |
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Genes |
Functional units of heredity. A segment of a DNA molecule that specifies the structure of an RNA molecule |
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Heredity |
Transmission of genetic traits from parent to offspring |
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Gene expression |
The product of RNA and or proteins from information stored in DNA. Two steps. Transcription and translation |
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Transcription |
A copy of the gene |
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Translation |
The changing of something from one form to another. |
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Explain how gene expression works. |
Because DNA is to large to go through the nucleus it creates a copy (transcription) necessary to make a particular protein. The copy is called mRNA travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where the info copy is used to construct a protein (translation); the ingredients or particles needed to create the gene are brought to the ribosomes by tRNA |
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How transcription works |
The synthesis of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA molecules based on the sequence on DNA. Occurs when a section of DNA unwinds and it's complementary strands separate. One strand serves as the template strand for the process of transcription. Nucleotides that form RNA align with the DNA nucleotides in the template strand by complimentary base pairing. |
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RNA polymerase |
Enzyme that synthesize the complementary RNA molecule near the beginning of the gene by the promoter. It must associate with transcription factors |
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Promoter |
Signals the beginning of a gene and is the site for initial RNA polymerase binding. |
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Exons |
Regions of the mRNA that do code for proteins. |
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Introns |
Regions of mRNA that do not code for a protein |
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PremRNA |
And mRNA that contains introns. |
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Post transcriptional processing |
Modifications of preMRNA which produce the functional mRNA used in translation to produce a protein. |
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Alternative splicing |
Process in which various combinations of exons are incorporated into mRNA. allows a single gene to produce more than one specific protein. |
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Genetic code |
The information contained in MRNA and it relates the nucleotide sequence of mRNA to the amino acid sequence of a protein |
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Codons |
Three nucleotide sequences which specify an amino acid during translation. 64 possible codons |
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Start codon |
Signals the beginning of a translation |
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Stop codon |
End of translation UAA, UGA, UAG |
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The function of tRNA |
Match specific amino acids to a specific codon of mRNA |
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Anticodon |
Three nucleotides complimentary to a particular codon. Only matches with one codon. |
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Polyribosome |
A cluster of ribosomes attached to the same mRNA. Each ribosome in a polyribosome produces an indentical protein making an efficient way to produce many copies of the same protein using a single mRNA molecule |
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Proproteins |
A longer protein than what it will be in it's final state. Extra length will be cleaned off by enzymes |
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Proenzymes |
Enzymes that cut the proproteins so that they may be in their final functional state |
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Posttranslational process |
Being modified before functional in a cell |
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Describe posttranslational change in mRNA |
The two DNA strands separate and one strand is transcribed to produce in pre mRNA strand An intron is cleaved from between two exons and discarded The exons are spliced together to make the functional mRNA A 7 methyl guanosine cap and a poly a tail are added to mRNA |
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How does gene expression work |
DANA contains necessary info to produce proteins Transcription of a region of one DNA strands results in mRNA which is a complimentary copy of the info in the DNA strand necessary to make a protein The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome Amino acids the building blocks of proteins are carried to the ribosomes by trnas In the process of translation the information contained in mRNA is used to determine the number kinds and arrangement of amino acids in the polypeptide chain |
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Formation of mRNA by transcription of DNA |
The strands of DNA of the DNA molecule separate from each other one DNA strand serves as a template for mRNA synthesis Nucleotides that will form mRNA pair with DNA nucleotides according to the base pair combinations RNA polymerase joins the nucleotides of mRNA together As nucleotides are added the MRNA molecule is formed |
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Nucleotide pairs |
Cytosine to guanine Thymine to adenine Uracil to adenine |
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What nucleotide does RNA have that DNA does not have |
RNA has uracil not thymine |
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Transcription of mRNA to produce a protein |
To start protein synthesis a ribosome binds to mRNA the ribosome also has two binding sites for TRNA one which is occupied by a TRNA with its amino acid. The other site is open By occupying the open TRNA binding site the next TRNA is properly aligned with mRNA and with the other TRNA An enzyme within the ribosome catalyzes a synthesis reaction to form a peptide bond between the amino acids The ribosomes shift position by three nucleotides the TRNA without the amino acid is released from the ribosome and the TRNA with the amino acids takes its position a TRNA binding site is left open by the shift additional amino acids can be added by repeating steps 2 through 4 Eventually a stop codon in mRNA such as UAA and the process of translation at this point the MRNA and polypeptide chain are released from the ribosome Multiple ribosomes attached to a single mRNA to form a polyribosome as the ribosomes move down the MRNA proteins attached to the ribosomes lengthen and eventually detach from the MRNA |
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Cell life cycle |
Includes the changes of a cell undergoes from the time it is formed until the time it divides to produce two new cells |
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Intraphase |
The phase between cell division. Nearly all of the life cycle of a typical cell is placed here. Cell carries out the metabolic activities necessary for life and performs it's specialized function. Also prepares to divide. Divided into three subphases |
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Three subphases of intraphase |
G1- cell carries out routine metabolic activities S- DNA replicated G2- cell prepares for cell division |
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DNA replication |
The process in which two strands of a DNA molecule each serve as a template for making complementary new strands of nucleotides |
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DNA polymerase |
An enzyme that adds new nucleotides to the 3 end of the growing strands catalyzes the production of a new nucleotide |
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Leading strand |
A continuous strand of DNA for replication |
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Lagging strand |
Short fragments of DNA spliced by DANA ligase. |
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Cell division |
Cell division produces the new cells necessary for growth and tissue repair a parent cell divides to form two daughter cells each having the same amount and type of DNA as the parent cell the daughter cells also tend to have the same structure and perform the same functions as the parent cell |
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The two major events in cell division |
The division of chromosomes into two nuclei and the division of the cytoplasm |
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Mitosis |
The division of a cell's nucleus into two new nuclei each containing the same amount and type of DNA as the original nucleus. |
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Process of DNA replication |
The strands of the DNA molecule separate from each Each old strand functions as a template on which a new complementary strand is formed the base pairing relationship between nucleotides determines the sequence of nucleotides in the newly-formed strands Two identical DNA molecules are produced |
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Mitotic chromosomes |
Discrete bodies that can be stained and easily seen with a light microscope densely coiled compact chromosomes used during mitosis |
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Chromatid |
A copy of the original chromosome |
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Centromere |
The attachment place for chromatids |
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Kinetochore |
A protein structure that binds to the centromere and provides a point of attachment for microtubules that will separate and move the chromosomes chromatids during mitosis |
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The four phases of mitosis |
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase |
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Proohase |
chromatin condenses to form a mitotic chromosomes. Centrioles in the cytoplasm divide and migrate to each pole of the cell microtubules called spindle fibers extend from the centrioles to the centromeres of the chromosomes. In late prophase the nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear |
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Metaphase |
Chromosomes align near the center of the cell |
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Anaphase |
Chromatids separate. One of the two identical sets of chromosomes is moved by the spindle fibers toward the centrioles at each of the poles of the cell at the end of anaphase each set of chromosomes has reached the opposite poles of the cell and the cytoplasm begins to divide |
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Telophase |
Nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes to form two separate nuclei the chromosomes begin to uncoil and resemble the genetic material characteristic of interface |
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Cytokinesis |
The division of the cell cytoplasm to produce two new cells begins in anaphase and continues through telophase |
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Cleavage furrow |
The first sign of cytokinesis involving the indention of a plasma membrane that forms midway between the centrioles |
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Apoptisis |
Also known as programmed cell death it's a normal process by which cell number within various tissues is adjusted and controlled in a developing fetus it removes extra tissue such as cells between developing fingers and toes |
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The major hypothesis that attempt to explain how aging occurs in cells |
Cellular clock Death genes DNA damage Free radicals Mitochondrial damage |
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Cellular clock |
A hypothesis of Aging that suggests the existence of a cellular clock that after a certain passage of time or certain number of cell divisions results in Death of a given cell line |
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Death genes |
A hypothesis that suggests that there are death genes which turn on late in life or sometimes prematurely causing cells to deteriorate and die |
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DNA damage |
A hypothesis that suggest Through Time DNA is damaged resulting in cell degeneration and death |
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Free radicals |
A hypothesis that says DNA results in mutations causing cellular dysfunction and ultimately cell death |
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Mitochondrial damage |
A hypothesis saying that mitochondria the primary source of ATP the loss and function could least to loss of energy critical to cell function and ultimately to cell death |
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Genotype |
Gene is present |
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Phenotype |
Gene can be seen |
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Homozygous |
2 of the same RR bb |
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Heterozygous |
Not the same Br Recessive and dominant |
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Hemophilia. |
Women can just carry this gene. Me either have it or they don't. Can't carry the gene shown by little h. Big H is carrier |
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OY |
Cannot survive with X |
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XO |
Can survive will be female |
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XXY |
Can survive but will be male due to presence of y |
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Codominance |
Both dominate AB |
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Incomplete dominance |
Recessive gene shows in presence of dominant |
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Egg and sperm have how many chromosomes |
23 with 46 in embryo. Every cell has 46 other than sperm and egg |
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Diploid |
Pair of chromosomes |
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Haploid |
One copy of egg and sperm Egg or sperm. |
