Chapter 2:the Cell And Its Functions

Front 1

2 major parts of a cell

Back 1

NUCLEUS & CYTOPLASM

Front 2

Protoplasm is composed mainly of what substances? (5)

Back 2

CWELP
Carbohydrates
Water (most abundant)
Electrolytes
Lipids
Proteins(2nd)10-20%cellmass

*Protoplasm-collective term of different subs. that make up a cell

Front 3

Principal medium fluid of the cell

Back 3

WATER

*present in most cells except fat cells (70-85%)

Front 4

Provide Inorganic chemicals for cellular reactions and is responsible in the operation of some cellular control mechanisms

Back 4

Ions

*most imp: BKMPS
Bicarbonate,K(1+),Mg(2+),
Phosphate,Sulfate,
small qty: Na,Cl,Ca(2+)

Front 5

2 types of Proteins

Back 5

STRUCTURAL PROTEINS

FUNCTIONAL PROTEINS

Front 6

Type of protein in the form of long filaments or fibrillar proteins

Back 6

STRUCTURAL PROTEINS

*Intracellular
- form microtubules to provide "cytoskeletons" to organelles
(cilia,nerve axons,mitotic spindles,tangled mass of filamentous tubules -hold parts of cytoplasm and nucleoplasm together)

Extracellular
-collagen and elastin fibers of connective tissue ,blood vessel walls,ligaments,tendons

Front 7

Type of protein that is in tubular-globular form and is mobile in cell fluid

Back 7

FUNCTIONAL PROTEINS

*"enzymes" of the cell
direct contact w/ subs in cell
fluid and catalyze specific intracellular chemical rxns
-adherent to membranous structures inside cell

Front 8

Insoluble in H20 and used to form the cell membrane and intracellular membrane barriers that separate diff. cell compartments

Back 8

LIPIDS

*(Phospholipids & Cholesterol)
2% of cell mass

Front 9

"Neutral fat"

Back 9

TRIGLYCERIDES

*95% of cell mass in fat cells
fat stored represents the body's main storehouse of energy-giving nutrients w/c can be used when needed

Front 10

Parts of glycoprotein molecules which plays a major role in nutrition of the cell but has little structural function

Back 10

CARBOHYDRATES

*1%-average
3%-muscle cells
6%-liver cells

dissolved glucose
-present in extracellular fluid readily available to cell

glycogen
-insoluble polymer of glucose
-can be depolymerized and used rapidly to supply energy needs

Front 11

True or False:
The Cell contains highly organized physical structures called "intracellular organelles"

Back 11

TRUE

Front 12

True or False:
Membranes of the cells are composed mainly of Carbohydrates and Proteins

Back 12

FALSE

*LIPIDS AND PROTEINS

Front 13

"Plasma membrane" which is a lipid bilayer w/c envelops the cell

Back 13

CELL MEMBRANE

*thin,pliable,elastic
7.5-10nm
proteins (55%)
phospholipids(25%)
cholesterol (13%)
carbohydrates(3%)

Front 14

True or False:
In the Basic lipid bilayer of the cell membrane,one end is soluble in water that is hydrophobic and the other end which is soluble in fats is hydrophilic

Back 14

FALSE

*Hydrophilic
-water soluble,phosphate end
-constitute the 2 surfaces of complete cell membrane

Hydrophobic
- fat soluble,fatty acid portion
-impermeable to water-soluble subs (UGE urea,glucose,ions)
-mutually attracted to one another (naturally attach to one another)
-fat soluble subs (COA- CO2,O2,Alcohol)

Front 15

True or False:
Cholesterol molecules in the membrane mainly help determine the degree of permeability of bilayer to water soluble constituents of body fluids

Back 15

TRUE

* It also controls the fluidity of membrane

Front 16

These are membrane proteins which protrude all the way through the membrane

Back 16

INTEGRAL PROTEINS

*Structural channels/pores
-H2O soluble

Carrier proteins
-transport subs. that can't penetrate membrane
"active transport"-opposite direction of diffusion

Enzymes
Receptors

Front 17

True or False:
Interaction of cell membrane receptors w/ specific ligands that bind to receptor causes conformational changes in receptor protein which enzymatically activates intracellular part of protein

Back 17

TRUE

*It relays signal from the extracellular part of receptor to the interior of cell(convey information from environment to cell interior)

Front 18

These are membrane proteins which are attached only to the membrane but doesn't penetrate all way through

Back 18

PERIPHERAL PROTEINS

*often attached to integral proteins
-enzymes or controllers of transport of subs. through CM pores

Front 19

Are mainly Carbohydrate compounds bound to small protein cores which are loosely attached to the outer surface of the cell

Back 19

PROTEOGLYCANS

Front 20

True or False:
Interaction of Cell Membrane receptors with specific ligands that bind to the receptor causes conformational changes in the receptor protein which enzymatically activates the intracellular part of the protein(2nd messengers)

Back 20

TRUE

*Integral proteins provide means of conveying info. about the environment to the cell interior.

Front 21

True or False:
The Carbohydrate moieties attached to the outer surface of the cell have a (-) electrical charge which gives most cells an overall negative surface charge that repels other (-) objects

Back 21

TRUE

*-Glycocalyx of some attaches to glycocalyx of others
-acts as receptor substances for binding hormones(insulin)
-some enter into immune rxns.

Front 22

The Clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm in which the particles are dispersed

Back 22

CYTOSOL

*contains mainly dissolved PEG
proteins,electrolytes,glucose

Front 23

A network of tubular and flat vesicular
structures in the cytoplasm that are interconnected
with one another. Their walls are constructed
of lipid bilayer membranes that contain large amounts
of proteins, similar to the cell membrane

Back 23

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Front 24

A watery medium that is different from the fluid in the cytosol outside the endoplasmic reticulum.

Back 24

ENDOPLASMIC MATRIX

*fills the space inside the tubules and vesicles of the ER

Front 25

Large numbers of minute
granular particles attached to the outer surfaces of many parts of the
endoplasmic reticulum

Back 25

RIBOSOMES

*mixture of RNA and proteins
(function to synthesize new protein molecules in the cell)

"Granular ER"-w/ ribosomes

Front 26

Part of the ER with no attached ribosomes which is used for lipid synthesis

Back 26

AGRANULAR/ SMOOTH ER

*for other processes of the
cells promoted by intrareticular enzymes.

Front 27

It functions in association with
the ER.It is prominent
in secretory cells, where it is located on the side of
the cell from which the secretory substances are
extruded.

Back 27

GOLGI APPARATUS

*-composed of 4 or more
stacked layers of thin, flat, enclosed vesicles lying near
one side of the nucleus
-membranes similar to those of the agranular ER

Front 28

Vesicular organelles that form by breaking off from the Golgi
apparatus and then dispersing throughout the cytoplasm

Back 28

LYSOSOMES

*-250 to 750 nm
-surrounded by a typical lipid bilayer membrane
-filled with large numbers of small granules (protein aggregates)of 40 different hydrolase(digestive) enzymes

Front 29

True or False:
Peroxisomes are intracellular digestive system that allows the cell to digest damaged cellular
structures, food particles that have been
ingested by the cell, and unwanted matter such as
bacteria

Back 29

FALSE

*Lysosomes

Front 30

True or False:
A hydrolytic enzyme is capable of splitting an organic compound into 2 or more parts by combining hydrogen from a water molecule with one part of the compound and combining
the hydroxyl portion of the water molecule with the other part of the compound

Back 30

TRUE

protein--->amino acids
glycogen --> glucose
lipids --> fatty acids and glycerol.

Front 31

It contain oxidases rather than hydrolases.

Back 31

PEROXISOMES

*formed by self-replication/by budding off from smooth ER

Front 32

Another oxidase
enzyme present in large quantities in peroxisomes,which
oxidize many substances that might otherwise be poisonous
to the cell.

Back 32

CATALASE

*Several of the oxidases are capable of combining oxygen with hydrogen ions derived from different intracellular
chemicals to form hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)- a highly oxidizing substance

Front 33

Are released from the Golgi apparatus into the cytoplasm
in the form of storage vesicles

Back 33

SECRETORY VESICLES

Front 34

True or False:
Mitochondria are present in all areas of each cell’s
cytoplasm, but the total number per cell varies from
less than a hundred up to several thousand, depending
on the amount of energy required by the cell

Back 34

TRUE

*The mitochondria are concentrated in portions
of the cell (responsible for major share of
its energy metabolism)

Front 35

True or False:
The inner cavity of the mitochondrion is filled with a matrix that contains large
quantities of dissolved enzymes that are necessary for extracting energy from nutrients.

Back 35

TRUE

*2 lipid bilayer–protein membranes: outer membrane and inner membrane.
-(many infoldings form shelves onto which oxidative enzymes
are attached)

Front 36

True or False:
Mitochondria are self-replicative whenever there is a need in the cell for increased amounts of ATP.

Back 36

TRUE

*The mitochondria contain DNA
(controls replication of the mitochondrion itself)

Front 37

The outer zone of the cytoplasm

Back 37

ECTOPLASM

Front 38

A special type of stiff filament composed of polymerized
tubulin molecules which is used in all cells to construct
very strong tubular structures

Back 38

MICROTUBULES

*-primary function is to act as
a cytoskeleton, providing rigid physical structures for
certain parts of cells.

Front 39

Control center of the cell

Back 39

NUCLEUS

*contains large quantities of DNA (genes)

Front 40

It determines the characteristics of the cell’s proteins, including the structural proteins, the intracellular enzymes that control cytoplasmic and nuclear activities.

Back 40

GENES

The genes also control and promote reproduction of
the cell itself.

Front 41

Other name for "Nuclear Envelope"

Back 41

NUCLEAR MEMBRANE

*-2 separate bilayer membranes, one inside the other.

Outer membrane is continuous
with the ER of the cell cytoplasm &the space between the two nuclear membranes is also continuous with the space inside the ER

Front 42

True or False:
The Nuclear Membrane is penetrated by several
thousand nuclear pores. Large complexes of protein
molecules are attached at the edges of the pores.

Back 42

TRUE

Front 43

It doesn't have a limiting membrane but is simply an accumulation of large amounts of RNA and proteins of the
types found in ribosomes.

Back 43

NUCLEOLUS

*The Nucleolus becomes considerably
enlarged when the cell is actively synthesizing
proteins.

Front 44

It involves simple movement through the membrane caused by the random motion of the molecules of the substance

Back 44

DIFFUSION

*-substances move either
through cell membrane pores or, in the case of lipidsoluble
substances, through the lipid matrix of the membrane.

Front 45

It involves the actual carrying of a substance through the membrane by a physical protein structure that penetrates all the way through the membrane.

Back 45

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Front 46

Ingestion of minute
particles that form vesicles of extracellular fluid and
particulate constituents inside the cell cytoplasm.

Back 46

PINOCYTOSIS

Front 47

Ingestion of large particles, such
as bacteria, whole cells, or portions of degenerating
tissue.

Back 47

PHAGOCYTOSIS

Front 48

A latticework of fibrillar protein inside of the cell membrane beneath these pits

Back 48

CLATHRIN

Front 49

Pinocytosis requires energy
from within the cell which is supplied by ATP

Back 49

TRUE

*-It requires the presence of calcium ions in the extracellular fluid, which probably react with contractile
protein filaments beneath the coated pits to provide
the force for pinching the vesicles away from the cell
membrane.

Front 50

True or False:
Only certain cells have the capability of phagocytosis, most notably the tissue macrophages and some of the white blood cells.

Back 50

TRUE

*-Phagocytosis is initiated when a particle such as a
bacterium, a dead cell, or tissue debris binds with
receptors on the surface of the phagocyte.

Front 51

The intermediation of antibodies when a bacterium is already attached
to a specific antibody, and it is the antibody that
attaches to the phagocyte receptors, dragging the bacterium along with it.

Back 51

OPSONIZATION

Front 52

True or False:
To keep the endoplasmic reticulum from growing
beyond the needs of the cell, small vesicles called ER
vesicles "transport vesicles" continually break away
from the smooth reticulum. Most of these vesicles then
migrate rapidly to the Golgi apparatus.

Back 52

TRUE

Front 53

It provides the enzymes that control glycogen breakdown when glycogen is to be used for energy.

Back 53

SMOOTH ER

*It also provides a vast number of enzymes that are
capable of detoxifying substances, such as drugs,
that might damage the cell.
CHOD
Conjugation with glycuronic acid,Hydrolysis,Oxidation,Detoxification by coagulation)

Front 54

It also has the capability of synthesizing certain carbohydrates that cannot be formed in the ER especially for the formation of large saccharide polymers bound with small amounts of protein.

Back 54

GOLGI APPARATUS

*Hyaluronic acid and Chondroitin sulfate

Front 55

True or False:
Hyaluronic acid and Chondroitin SO4 are the major components of proteoglycans secreted in mucus and other glandular secretions and they are the principal components of the organic matrix in both
cartilage and bone.

Back 55

TRUE

*They are the major components of the ground substance outside
the cells in the interstitial spaces, acting as filler
between collagen fibers and cells

Front 56

An important function of this organelle is to compact the endoplasmic reticular secretions into highly concentrated packets

Back 56

GOLGI APPARATUS

Front 57

Exocytosis, in most cases, is stimulated by the
entry of calcium ions into the cell

Back 57

TRUE

*Calcium ions interact with the vesicular membrane in some way that is not understood and cause its fusion with the cell membrane, followed by exocytosis.

Front 58

True or False:
The principal substances from which cells extract
energy are foodstuffs that react chemically with hydrogen

Back 58

FALSE

*Oxygen

CFP
(Carbohydrates, Fats,Proteins)

Front 59

It has been called the energy currency
of the cell because it can be spent and remade continually,
having a turnover time of only a few minutes.

Back 59

ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)

*A nucleotide composed of
(1) nitrogenous base,(adenine)
(2) the pentose sugar ribose
(3)three phosphate radicals

Front 60

True or False:
Each of the high-energy phosphate bonds contains about 12,000 calories of energy per mole of ATP under the physical and chemical conditions of the body.

Back 60

TRUE

*Is many times greater than the energy stored in the
average chemical bond,
-The high-energy phosphate
bond is very labile, so that it can be split instantly on
demand whenever energy is required to promote
other intracellular reactions.

Front 61

When a phosphoric acid
radical is split away from ATP when energy is released,what is formed?

Back 61

ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE (ADP)

*This released energy is used to energize virtually all of the cell’s other functions:SM
(Synthesis of substances and Muscular contraction)

Front 62

It is a process where glucose is subjected to enzymes in the cytoplasm that convert it into pyruvic acid

Back 62

GLYCOLYSIS

*Accounts for less than 5 % of the overall energy metabolism of the cell.

Front 63

True or False:
The pyruvic acid derived from carbohydrates, fatty
acids from lipids, and amino acids from proteins are
eventually converted into the compound acetyl-CoA
in the matrix of the mitochondrion

Back 63

TRUE

*The major portion of the ATP formed in the cell is formed in the mitochondria which is 95 %.

Front 64

Where does Citric Acid Cycle or Kreb's Cycle take place?

Back 64

MATRIX OF MITROCHONDRION

Front 65

In the citric acid cycle, acetyl-CoA is split into its
component parts which are....

Back 65

HYDROGEN ATOMS AND CARBON DIOXIDE

*CO2 diffuses out of the mitochondria
and eventually out of the cell; then excreted (lungs).
-Hydrogen are highly reactive,
which instantly combine with O2 that has also
diffused into the mitochondria.It releases a tremendous amount of energy, (used by the mitochondria)
to convert very large amounts of ADP to ATP

Front 66

Large globular proteins that protrude like knobs from the membranes of the mitochondrial shelves

Back 66

ATP SYNTHETASE

*uses the energy
from the hydrogen ions to cause the conversion of
ADP to ATP.
-The newly formed ATP is transported out of the mitochondria into all parts of the cell cytoplasm
and nucleoplasm

Front 67

The overall process for formation of ATP

Back 67

CHEMIOSMOTIC MECHANISM OF ATP FORMATION

Front 68

True or False:
Energy from ATP is used to transport of substances through multiple membranes in the cell, also used in the synthesis of chemical compounds throughout the cell and mechanical work.

Back 68

TRUE

Front 69

A locomotion that begins with protrusion of a pseudopodium from one end of the cell. The pseudopodium projects far out, away from the cell body, and partially secures itself in a new tissue area. Then the remainder of the cell is pulled toward the
pseudopodium.

Back 69

AMEBOID MOVEMENT

*movement of an entire cell in
relation to its surroundings, (white blood cells through tissues)
- It receives its name because amebae move in this manner

Front 70

Types of Cells That Exhibit Ameboid Locomotion.

Back 70

WBC,FIBROBLASTS,GERMINAL CELLS,

*WBC move out of the blood into the tissues in the form of tissue
macrophages.

Fibroblasts move into a damaged area to help repair damage,

germinal cells of the skin,

important in development of the
embryo and fetus after fertilization of an ovum.

Front 71

The most
important initiator of ameboid locomotion .

Back 71

chemotaxis

*Results from the appearance
of certain chemical substances in the tissues.

Front 72

Any chemical substance that causes chemotaxis to
occur

Back 72

CHEMOTACTIC SUBSTANCE

Front 73

Negative chemotaxis is from an area of lower concentration toward an area of higher concentration. Some
cells move away from the source, which is called positive
chemotaxis.

Back 73

FALSE

*positive- lower-->higher conc.
*negative - away from

the side of the cell most exposed to the chemotactic substance develops membrane
changes that cause pseudopodial protrusion.

Front 74

A kind of locomotion that is a whiplike movement of cilia on the surfaces of cells.

Back 74

CILIARY MOVEMENT

*occurs in only two places:
1)on the surfaces of the respiratory airways
2)inside surfaces of the uterine tubes (fallopian tubes) of the reproductive tract

Front 75

True or False:
Axoneme is the total complex of tubules and crosslinkages .

Back 75

TRUE

*the 9 double tubules and the 2 single tubules are all linked to one another by a complex of protein cross-linkages

Front 76

The 2 necessary conditions for continued beating of the
axoneme after removal of the other structures of the
cilium are the availability of ATP and the appropriate
ionic conditions,appropriate concentrations
of magnesium and calcium.

Back 76

TRUE

Front 77

True or False:
If the damage is severe, the entire cell is digested, a
process called autolysis.

Back 77

TRUE

*In this way, the cell is completely
removed, and a new cell of the same type ordinarily
is formed by mitotic reproduction of an adjacent
cell to take the place of the old one.

Front 78

TRUE OR FALSE:
The lysosomes also contain bactericidal agents that
can kill phagocytized bacteria before they can cause
cellular damage that include lysozyme,lysoferrin and acid at a
pH of about 5.0

Back 78

TRUE

*lysozyme
dissolves the bacterial cell membrane;
*Lysoferrin
binds iron and other substances before they can promote bacterial growth
*Acid at a pH 5.0
activates the hydrolases and
inactivates bacterial metabolic systems.