Chapter 28

Front 1

Potsdam Conference

Back 1

A meeting held in Potsdam in the summer of 1945 among U.S., Soviet, and British leaders that established principles for the Allied occupation of Germany following the end of World War II.

Front 2

Zaibatsu

Back 2

A large Japanese business conglomerate.

Front 3

Nuremberg Trails

Back 3

The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals, held by the main victorious Allied forces of World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of the defeated Nazi Germany.

Front 4

Adolf Eichmann

Back 4

Eichmann, (Karl) Adolf (1906–62), German Nazi administrator. He administered the concentration camps during World War II. In 1960, he was traced to Argentina by Israeli agents and executed after trial in Israel.

Front 5

Hideki Tojo

Back 5

Tojo, Hideki (1884–1948), Japanese military leader and statesman; prime minister 1941–44. He initiated the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and by 1944 had assumed virtual control of all political and military decision-making. After Japan's surrender, he was tried and hanged as a war criminal.

Front 6

United Nations (UN)

Back 6

An international organization of countries set up in 1945, in succession to the League of Nations, to promote international peace, security, and cooperation.

Front 7

Eleanor Roosevelt

Back 7

Roosevelt, (Anna) Eleanor (1884–1962), U.S. humanitarian and diplomat. She was the niece of Theodore Roosevelt and married Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1905. Involved in a wide range of liberal causes, she served as chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights, where she helped to draft the Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

Front 8

Trygve Lie

Back 8

Lie: Norwegian diplomat who was the first Secretary General of the United Nations (1896-1968).

Front 9

Zionism

Back 9

A movement for (originally) the reestablishment and (now) the development and protection of a Jewish nation in what is now Israel. It was established as a political organization in 1897 under Theodor Herzl, and was later led by Chaim Weizmann.

Front 10

David Ben-Gurion

Back 10

Ben-Gurion, David (1886–1973), Israeli statesman; prime minister 1948–53 and 1955–63. He was Israel’s first prime minister and minister of defense.

Front 11

Ralph Bunche

Back 11

Ralph Johnson Bunche (August 7, 1904 . Nobel Peace Prize Laureates. December 9, 1971) was an American political scientist and diplomat who received the 1950 Nobel Peace Prize for his late 1940s mediation in Palestine. He was the first person of color to be so honored in the history of the Prize.

Front 12

Cold War

Back 12

A state of political hostility existing between countries, characterized by threats, violent propaganda, subversive activities, and other measures short of open warfare, in particular
• ( the Cold War) the state of political hostility that existed between the Soviet bloc countries and the U.S.-led Western powers from 1945 to 1990.

Front 13

Satellite Nations

Back 13

The satellite nations are the regions between Germany and Russia that were formed with the assistance of the UN after the end of WWII. However, Stalin and the communist Soviet Union took these regions over and operated them under a dictatorship. This is the region that winston churchill was talking about when he made his "iron curtain" speech.

Front 14

George Kennan

Back 14

George Frost Kennan (February 16, 1904 – March 17, 2005) was an American adviser, diplomat, political scientist, and historian, best known as "the father of containment" and as a key figure in the emergence of the Cold War. He later wrote standard histories of the relations between Russia and the Western powers.

In the late 1940s, his writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and the U.S. foreign policy of "containing" the Soviet Union, thrusting him into a lifelong role as a leading authority on the Cold War. His "Long Telegram" from Moscow in 1946, and the subsequent 1947 article "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" argued that the Soviet regime was inherently expansionist and that its influence had to be "contained" in areas of vital strategic importance to the United States. These texts quickly emerged as foundational texts of the Cold War, expressing the Truman administration's new anti-Soviet Union policy. Kennan also played a leading role in the development of definitive Cold War programs and institutions, most notably the Marshall Plan.

Shortly after his ideas had been enshrined as official US policy, Kennan began to criticize the policies that he had seemingly helped launch. By mid-1948, he was convinced that the situation in Western Europe had improved to the point where negotiations could be initiated with Moscow. The suggestion did not resonate within the Truman administration, and Kennan's influence was increasingly marginalized—particularly after Dean Acheson was appointed Secretary of State in 1949. As U.S. Cold War strategy assumed a more aggressive and militaristic tone, Kennan bemoaned what he called a misinterpretation of his thinking.

In 1950, Kennan left the Department of State, except for two brief ambassadorial stints in Moscow and Yugoslavia, and became a leading realist critic of U.S. foreign policy. He continued to be a leading thinker in international affairs as a faculty member of the Institute for Advanced Study from 1956 until his death at age 101 in March 2005.

Front 15

Containment

Back 15

The action of keeping something harmful under control or within limits : the containment of the AIDS epidemic.
• the action or policy of preventing the expansion of a hostile country or influence : the U.S. government saw the containment of communism as a global task.

Front 16

Baruch Plan

Back 16

The Baruch Plan was a proposal by the United States government, written largely by Bernard Baruch but based on the Acheson–Lilienthal Report, to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC) in its first meeting in June 1946. The United States, Great Britain and Canada called for an international organization to regulate atomic energy and President Truman responded by asking Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson and David Lilienthal to draw up a plan.

Front 17

Atomic Energy Act

Back 17

The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act) determined how the United States federal government would control and manage the nuclear technology it had jointly developed with its wartime allies (Britain and Canada). Most significantly, it ruled that nuclear weapon development and nuclear power management would be under civilian, rather than military control, and established the United States Atomic Energy Commission for this purpose. It was sponsored by Senator Brien McMahon, a Democrat from Connecticut, who chaired the United States Senate Special Committee on Atomic Energy whose hearings in late 1945 and early 1946 led to the fine tuning and passing of the Act.

The Senate passed the Act unanimously through voice vote and by the House of Representatives 265-79. It was signed by President Harry Truman on August 1, 1946 and it went into effect on January 1, 1947.

This displeased the British and Canadian governments,[citation needed] whose countries, before contributing technology and manpower to the Manhattan Project, had made agreements with the United States about the post-war sharing of nuclear technology. Those agreements were formalized in the 1943 Quebec Agreement. In the case of the United Kingdom, these were developed further in the 1944 Hyde Park Agreement, which was signed by Churchill and Roosevelt.[1]

The provisions of the Act were substantially modified by the Atomic Energy Act of 1954.

Reasons for implementing this act are detailed in section 1 of the "Declaration of Policy" released by the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: "Accordingly, it is hereby declared to be the policy of the people of the United States that,subject at all times to the paramount objective of assuring the common defense and security, the development and utilization of atomic energy shall, so far as practicable, be directed toward improving the public welfare, increasing the standard of living, strengthening free competition in private enterprise, and promoting world peace."

Front 18

Truman Doctrine

Back 18

The principle that the U.S. should give support to countries or peoples threatened by Soviet forces or communist insurrection. First expressed in 1947 by U.S. President Truman in a speech to Congress seeking aid for Greece and Turkey, the doctrine was seen by the communists as an open declaration of the Cold War.

Front 19

George C. Marshall

Back 19

Marshall, George C. (1880–1959), U.S. general and statesman; full name George Catlett Marshall. A career army officer, he served as chief of staff 1939–45 during World War II. As secretary of state 1947–49, he initiated the program of economic aid to European countries known as the Marshall Plan. Nobel Peace Prize (1953).

Front 20

Marshall Plan

Back 20

A program of financial aid and other initiatives, sponsored by the U.S., designed to boost the economies of western European countries after World War II. It was originally advocated by Secretary of State George C. Marshall and passed by Congress in 1948. Official name European Recovery Program .

Front 21

Berlin Airlift

Back 21

Berlin airlift - airlift in 1948 that supplied food and fuel to citizens of west Berlin when the Russians closed off land access to Berlin.

Front 22

NATO

Back 22

North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (abbr.: NATO)
an association of European and North American countries, formed in 1949 for the defense of Europe and the North Atlantic against the perceived threat of Soviet aggression. By 2005, the alliance consisted of 26 countries, including several eastern European nations. NATO's purpose is to safeguard member countries by political and military means.

Front 23

Warsaw Pact

Back 23

A treaty of mutual defense and military aid signed at Warsaw on May 14, 1955, by communist states of Europe under Soviet influence, in response to the admission of West Germany to NATO. The pact was dissolved in 1991.

Front 24

Chiang Kai-shek

Back 24

(1887–1975), Chinese statesman and general; president of China 1928–31 and 1943–49 and of Taiwan 1950–75. He tried to unite China by military means in the 1930s but was defeated by the Communists. Forced to abandon mainland China in 1949, he set up a separate Nationalist Chinese State in Taiwan.

Front 25

Mao Zedong

Back 25

(1893–1976), Chinese statesman; chairman of the Communist Party of the Chinese People's Republic 1949–76; head of state 1949–59. A cofounder of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921 and its effective leader from the time of the Long March (1934–35), he eventually defeated both the occupying Japanese and rival Kuomintang nationalist forces to create the People's Republic of China in 1949.

Front 26

Kim IL Sung

Back 26

(1912–94), Korean communist statesman; first premier of North Korea 1948–72 and president 1972–94; born Kim Song Ju. He precipitated the Korean War 1950–53. He maintained a one-party state and created a personality cult around himself and his family. He was succeeded by his son Kim Jong Il |ˈjô ng ˈil|(1942– ).

Front 27

Syngman Rhee

Back 27

Rhee, Syngman (1875–1975), president of the Republic of Korea (South Korea) 1948–60. The principal leader in the movement for Korean independence, he was president of the exiled Korean provisional government 1919–41. After World War II, he became the first elected president of South Korea. Amid social and political unrest, he resigned one month into his fourth term and went into exile in Hawaii.

Front 28

Douglas MacArthur

Back 28

MacArthur, Douglas (1880–1964), U.S. general. Commander of U.S. (later Allied) forces in the southwestern Pacific during World War II, he accepted Japan's surrender in 1945 and administered the ensuing Allied occupation. He was in charge of UN forces in Korea 1950–51, before being forced to relinquish command by President Truman.

Front 29

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Back 29

Dwight D. Eisenhower - United States general who supervised the invasion of Normandy and the defeat of Nazi Germany; 34th President of the United States (1890-1961).

Front 30

Brinkmanship

Back 30

The art or practice of pursuing a dangerous policy to the limits of safety before stopping, typically in politics.

Front 31

Central Intelligence Agency

Back 31

A U.S. federal agency responsible for coordinating government intelligence activities.

Front 32

Nikita Khrushchev

Back 32

Khrushchev, Nikita (Sergeevich) (1894–1971), Soviet statesman; premier 1958–64. He came close to war with the U.S. over the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 and also clashed with China, which led to his being ousted by Brezhnev and Kosygin.

Front 33

U-2 Incident

Back 33

The 1960 U-2 incident occurred during the Cold War on May 1, 1960, during the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower and during the leadership of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, when a United States U-2 spy plane was shot down over Soviet Union airspace. The United States government at first denied the plane's purpose and mission, but then was forced to admit its role as a covert surveillance aircraft when the Soviet government produced its remains (largely intact) and surviving pilot, Francis Gary Powers. Coming just over two weeks before the scheduled opening of an East–West summit in Paris, the incident was a great embarrassment to the United States[1] and prompted a marked deterioration in its relations with the Soviet Union.

Front 34

National Security Council (NSC)

Back 34

National Security Council - a committee in the executive branch of government that advises the president on foreign and military and national security; supervises the Central Intelligence Agency

Front 35

House Un-American Activities Committee

Back 35

A committee of the U.S. House of Representatives established in 1938 to investigate subversives. It became notorious for its zealous investigations of alleged communists, particularly in the late 1940s, although it was originally intended to pursue Fascists also.

Front 36

Hollywood Ten

Back 36

Group of U.S. movie producers, directors, and screenwriters who refused to answer questions about communist affiliations before the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1947. The Ten—Alvah Bessie, Herbert Biberman, Lester Cole, Edward Dmytryk, Ring Lardner, Jr., John Howard Lawson, Albert Maltz, Samuel Ornitz, Adrian Scott, and Dalton Trumbo—were charged with contempt of Congress and given prison sentences of six months to a year. After their release, they were blacklisted and unable to find work in Hollywood, though some wrote scripts under pseudonyms. The blacklist gradually disappeared in the early 1960s.

Front 37

Alger Hiss

Back 37

Hiss, Alger (1904–96), U.S. public official. In 1948 he was accused by journalist Whittaker Chambers of passing State Department documents to a Soviet agent.

Front 38

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

Back 38

Ethel Greenglass Rosenberg (September 28, 1915 – June 19, 1953) and Julius Rosenberg (May 12, 1918 – June 19, 1953) were American communists who were executed in 1953 for conspiracy to commit espionage. The charges related to passing information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. This was the first execution of civilians for espionage in United States history.[1]

Since the execution, decoded Soviet cables, codenamed VENONA, have supported courtroom testimony that Julius acted as a courier and recruiter for the Soviets, but doubts remain about the level of Ethel's involvement.[2][3] The decision to execute the Rosenbergs was, and still is, controversial. The New York Times, in an editorial on the 50th anniversary of the execution (June 19, 2003) wrote, "The Rosenbergs case still haunts American history, reminding us of the injustice that can be done when a nation gets caught up in hysteria."[4] This hysteria had both an immediate and a lasting effect; many innocent scientists, including some who were virulently anti-communist, were investigated simply for having the last name "Rosenberg." The other atomic spies who were caught by the FBI offered confessions and were not executed. Ethel's brother, David Greenglass, who supplied documents to Julius from Los Alamos, served 10 years of his 15 year sentence.[5] Harry Gold, who identified Greenglass, served 15 years in Federal prison as the courier for Greenglass and the British scientist, Klaus Fuchs.[6] Morton Sobell, who was tried with the Rosenbergs, served 17 years and 9 months.[7] In 2008, Sobell admitted he was a spy and confirmed Julius Rosenberg was "in a conspiracy that delivered to the Soviets classified military and industrial information and what the American government described as the secret to the atomic bomb."

Front 39

Internal Security Act

Back 39

The McCarran Internal Security Act, also known as the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950 (50 U.S.C.A. § 781 et seq.), was part of a legislative package that was designated as the Internal Security Act of 1950. Congress passed such statutes in response to the post-World War II Cold War during which many public officials perceived a threat of violent and forcible over-throw of the U.S. government by U.S. Communist groups that advocated this objective. Among other things, the legislation required members of the Communist party to register with the attorney general, and the named organizations had to provide certain information, such as lists of their members. It established the Subversive Activities Control Board to determine which individuals and organizations had to comply with the law and the procedures to be followed. Failure to satisfy the statutory requirements subjected the individual or organization to criminal prosecution and stiff fines.

Congress repealed the registration requirements of the law in 1968 as a result of a number of decisions by the U.S. Supreme Court that declared certain aspects of the law unconstitutional.

Front 40

Joseph McCarthy

Back 40

McCarthy, Joseph (Raymond) (1909–57), U.S. politician; a U.S. senator from Wisconsin 1947–57. Between 1950 and 1954, he was the instigator of widespread investigations into alleged communist infiltration in U.S. public life. Eventually discredited, he was censured by the Senate in 1954.

Front 41

Margaret Chase Smith

Back 41

Smith, Margaret Chase (1897–1995), U.S. politician. A Republican from Maine, she was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives 1940–1949 and a U.S. senator 1949–73, making her the first woman to serve in both houses of Congress.

Front 42

Hydrogen Bomb

Back 42

An immensely powerful bomb whose destructive power comes from the rapid release of energy during the nuclear fusion of isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium), using an atom bomb as a trigger. Compare with atom bomb .

Front 43

Billy Graham

Back 43

Graham, Billy (1918– ), U.S. evangelical preacher and author; full name William Franklin Graham. A minister of the Southern Baptist Church, he is known for his large evangelistic crusades.

Front 44

Sputnik

Back 44

Each of a series of Soviet artificial satellites, the first of which (launched on October 4, 1957) was the first satellite to be placed in orbit.

Front 45

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Back 45

National Aeronautics and Space Administration - an independent agency of the United States government responsible for aviation and spaceflight.

Front 46

National Defense Education Act

Back 46

During the past several years, much discussion has focused on developing America’s future
scientists, technologists, engineers, and mathematicians (STEM) in order to remain viable and competitive in a growing global economy (Friedman, 2005). In retrospect, America has had
a long-standing involvement with STEM issues that dates back to the establishment of West Point in 1802. West Point graduates designed
many of the railroads, bridges, and roads so important to this country’s early expansion. The Morrill Act of 1862, originally intended to establish
colleges and universities to study agriculture and mechanical arts, also supported science
and engineering programs. This indirectly led
to the establishment of the university research
system (Butz et al., 2004). In more recent history,
parallels can be drawn between STEM initiatives
involving the launch of the Soviet satellite
Sputnik in 1957, its legislative history, and the current “quiet crisis” over America’s ability to
compete globally (Friedman, 2005). This article
examines the National Defense Education Act
(NDEA) and present-day STEM initiatives in
relation to gifted education.
More than 50 years ago, on October 4, 1957,
the Soviet Union propelled Sputnik, a 185-
pound sphere of aluminum, into space; it orbited
the Earth for a brief 98 minutes. “As a technical
achievement, Sputnik caught the world’s attention
and the American public off-guard,” and
also garnered swift action from the U.S. federal
government (National Aeronautics and Space
Administration [NASA], 2008, para. 4). The
United States’ reaction to the launch of Sputnik,
coupled with an already ongoing criticism of the
American educational system, set the stage for
an unprecedented infusion of funding from the
federal government to reform public education at
all levels. In 1958, the U.S. Congress passed the
National Defense Education Act (P.L. 85–864)
in order to counteract the seemingly superior
Soviet school system that focused on training
young scientists and creating an “elite generation”
of our own pipeline of STEM workers
(Passow, 1957).
National Defense Education Act
NDEA was aimed at stimulating and strengthening
American education reform by providing $1 billion over 4 years to be infused
into 40,000 loans, 40,000 scholarships,
and 1,500 graduate fellowships
(Fleming, 1960). The majority
of NDEA funding was intended for
those academically capable students
(particularly in STEM areas) who
did not have the financial means to
pursue undergraduate or graduate
degrees (Fleming, 1960). Matching
funds also were available to states in
order to bolster additional initiatives
identified to help improve America’s
competitiveness in STEM areas; those
that impacted gifted education include
Title III, Financial Assistance for
Strengthening Science, Mathematics,
and Modern Foreign Language
Instruction, and Title V, Guidance
Counseling and Testing; Identification
and Encouragement of Able Students
(Flattau et al., 2006).
Title III of NDEA provided states
matching funds to strengthen mathematics,
science, and foreign language
instruction, which included better
equipment and materials, along with
professional development for teachers.
The reorganization of science courses
impacted all students, including the
academically able (Anderson, 2007;
Flattau et al., 2006; Fleming, 1960).
A distinguishing characteristic of this
reform movement focused on the collaborative
efforts between teachers and
researchers. Rather than being passive
recipients of content and strategies,
teachers were treated as fundamental
contributors to the process (Dow,
1997).
Representative Carl Elliott, coauthor
of NDEA, recognized gifted students
as “an underdeveloped resource”
that would benefit American society
and fulfill a critical need made that
much more imperative by the launch
of Sputnik (Elliott, 1958, p. 143). Title
V of NDEA specifically earmarked
funds for the guidance, counseling,
testing and identification, and encouragement
of gifted students (Fleming,
1960). A by-product of identification
and counseling, academically able students
would provide a steady stream
for the STEM workforce.
Implications for Gifted
Education
After World War II, gifted education
was an inert state. No state
departments of education employed
personnel assigned to gifted education
and less than 4% of 3,203 cities
with populations over 2,500 reported
special programming for the gifted
(Tannenbaum, 1958). The launch of
Sputnik and the subsequent passage
of the NDEA catapulted gifted education
into relevancy and pushed the
field into one of its most productive
research periods through expanded
programming and a rejuvenated
research agenda.
Even prior to the launch of Sputnik,
questions arose over what special academic
accommodations should be
made for rapid learners in science.
Pure scientists were certainly a goal
but technicians, science teachers, and
engineers also were sought (Passow,
1957). Terman’s longitudinal study
of 1,500 gifted subjects illustrated
that none had gained eminence in
adulthood (Terman & Oden, 1959),
but “for every genius there [were]
hundreds of less eminent but highly
competent men and women who
also contribute[d] significantly to the
nation’s intellectual progress” (Wolfe,
1951, p. 42).
Recommendations comprised
exposing students to rigorous science
curricula early in their education and
reexamining the organization of subjects,
materials, content, sequence,
and methodologies (Passow, 1957).
NDEA’s influence could be felt in both
the changing strategies and curricula in
STEM areas and the greater implementation
of programming for the gifted
and talented during the NDEA years
(Flattau et al., 2006; Passow, 1957;
Wolfe, 1951). Special science programs
for elementary schools focused on
enrichment that encouraged independent
projects and a focus on everyday
experiences that represented a scientific
phenomenon (Anderson, 1961;
Wiszowaty, 1961). Science programs at
the high school level incorporated dual
enrollment, specialized high schools,
or acceleration (Havinghurst, Stivers,
& DeHaan, 1955).
The ramifications of Title V for
the gifted had immediate and lasting
effects on the field of gifted education.
Since the inception of the field in the
1920s, the definition of giftedness
remained relatively constant, comprising
2–10% of the student population
based solely on measures of IQ
(Goldberg, 1958). Talent searches were
employed as a strategy to identify those
with gifts and talents. For example,
Project TALENT “intended to find
out what talents young people of the
country, who are in the 9th to the
12th grades in high schools . . . have to
offer” (Flanagan, 1960, p. 51). A battery
of aptitude and achievement tests
were administered to 460,000 students
in 1,000 high schools, as if to create
an inventory of what America might
expect from its youth if identified and
encouraged to pursue the appropriate
careers based on their abilities and
interests (Flanagan, 1960). As a result,
by the mid-1960s systematic standardized
aptitude testing included nearly all
students in public schools compared
the handful of students tested at the
time of the launch of Sputnik (Flattau
et al., 2006).
During this same period, research
influences outside of the field began to impact the unitary definition of intelligence so closely tied to the definition of giftedness. Guilford’s work both.