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357 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what is an ion?
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charged particles
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what is an electrolyte?
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charged, ionized in water, carry electrical charges
ex. Na+, Ca2+, HCO3-, Cl- |
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what is a non polar covalent bond?
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sharing of electrons, strong bonds, that have EQUAL sharing
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what is a polar covalent bond?
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sharing of electrons, strong bonds, that have UNEQUAL sharing
ex. water has this between H and O atoms |
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what is a hydrogen bond?
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partial (-) O attracts partial (+) H,
weak attraction but can have strength in numbers, occurs between 2 or more particles |
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what do hydrogen bonds play a role in?
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1. physical properties of water
2. protein structure 3. DNA structure |
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what is a solution?
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when solutes are dissolved in a liquid, solvent is usually water
ex. cytoplasm |
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what is a solvent?
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usually water, dissolves another substance (the solute)
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what is a solute?
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the substance dissolved in a liquid (the solvent)
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what is solvency?
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Water is often called the "Universal Solvent." It is able to dissolve any hydrophilic molecule.
ex. blood.. which can transport solutes like -nutrients -respiratory gases -metabolic waste |
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what is adhesion?
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water sticks to other molecules
ex. lubricating films |
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what is cohesion?
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water sticks to other water molecules
ex. droplets |
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what is specific heat capacity?
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the amount of energy required to raise 1 gram by 1 degree celcius
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why is specific heat capacity so high?
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-SOME H bonds must break for water to go from ice to liquid
-ALL H bonds must break to go from liquid to vapor |
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what is evaporative cooling?
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sweating, it helps keep the body temperature stable as liquid evaporates, energy used to break H bonds as vapor forms, skin is cooler
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what is molarity?
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moles per liter, which is about equivalent to molecular weight
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what is a mole?
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expresses the amount of reactants and products
ex. 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O implies that 2 mol of dihydrogen and 1 mol of dioxygen react to form 2 mol of water |
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what is an osmole?
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measurement that defines the number of moles of a chemical compound that contribute to a solution's osmotic pressure
ex. 1 mol/L NaCl corresponds to an osmolarity of 2 osmol/L |
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what is an acid?
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proton donors that release H+
the closer to 0 on the pH scale the more acidic |
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what is a base?
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proton acceptors that accept H+
the closer to 14 on the pH scale the more basic |
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what is pH?
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it is based on H+ molarity
pH= -log [H+] pH3 has 10x less H+ than a pH2 |
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what is a buffer?
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any solution that resists change in pH
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what is a macromolecule?
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large molecules of repeating units
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what is a polymer?
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monomers that are covalently linked
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what is a monomer?
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the basic unit
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what is hydrolysis?
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dimer+H20=monomer+monomer
adding water to a molecule to break it down |
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what is dehydration synthesis?
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monomer+monomer=dimer+H20
building something up and having a water molecule |
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what is a carbohydrate?
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provides energy for the body
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what is the carbohydrate monomer?
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monosaccharide
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what is a disaccharide?
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2 monomers covalently linked
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what is a polysaccharide?
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50+ monomers
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what is glucose?
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-monosaccharide
-a simple sugar -the primary source of energy -metabolic intermediate |
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what is fructose?
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-monosaccharide
-a fruit sugar -found in many plants |
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what is cellulose?
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-polysaccharide
-found in plant cell wall |
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what is glycogen?
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-polysaccharide
-energy storage in animals |
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what is starch?
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-polysaccharide
-energy storage in plants |
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what is sucrose?
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-disaccharide
-table sugar |
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what is lactose?
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-disaccharide
-found in milk |
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what is a glycolipid?
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-lipids with a carbohydrate attached
-provide energy -ID tag for cells |
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what is an amino acid?
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-monomer unit of protein
-R group, amino group, H atom, and carboxyl group -20 different -R group varies -COVALENTLY linked by dehydration synthesis |
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what is a peptide?
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2 amino acids covalently bonded
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what is a polypeptide?
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many amino acids covalently bonded
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what is the primary structure of a protein?
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-the linear sequence of the polypeptide chain
-held together by covalent or peptide bonds |
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what is the secondary structure of a protein?
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-hydrogen bonds between the main peptide groups
-form pleats and helices |
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what is the tertiary structure of a protein?
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-the hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions between R groups
-causes 3 dimensional shape |
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what is the quaternary structure of a protein?
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-interactions between 2 or more polypeptide chains
-non covalent bonds |
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what is collagen?
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-an example of a protein
-provides structure and support for the body |
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what is a glycoprotein?
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-proteins with a carbohydrate attached
-often important integral membrane proteins ex. mucus, sticky due to the sugars attached |
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what are lipids?
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-energy storage
-cushioning -protection -insulation |
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what is a triglyceride?
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-the monomer of lipids
-1 glycerol and 3 FA -linked by covalent bonds |
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what is glycerol?
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-soluble in water
-backbone is central to all lipids, makes up triglycerides |
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what is FA?
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-long unbranched tail that makes up triglycerides
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what is adipose?
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-thermal insulation
-energy storage -protection |
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what is a phospholipid?
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-main component of cell membrane
-make up the bilayer |
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what is cholesterol?
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-steriod synthesis
-plasma membrane -fluidity |
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what are enzymes?
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-proteins that are biological catalysts
-they lower the activation energy to speed a reaction -can be used over and over -have specificity (active site + substrate) |
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how do enzymes work?
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-inducing strain on the bonds
-arranging molecules -adding or removing charges |
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what is the quaternary structure of a protein?
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-interactions between 2 or more polypeptide chains
-non covalent bonds |
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what is activation energy?
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what is needed to cause a reaction
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what is a substrate?
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it binds to the active site on the enzyme to cause a reaction to occur
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what is collagen?
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-an example of a protein
-provides structure and support for the body |
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what is an active site?
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found on the enzyme that recognize the substrate to bind
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what is a glycoprotein?
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-proteins with a carbohydrate attached
-often important integral membrane proteins ex. mucus, sticky due to the sugars attached |
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what is ATP?
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-adenosine triphosphate
-high energy stored in bonds between the phosphates -this energy can be transferred to do work |
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what are lipids?
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-energy storage
-cushioning -protection -insulation |
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what is a triglyceride?
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-the monomer of lipids
-1 glycerol and 3 FA -linked by covalent bonds |
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what is phosphorylation?
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-the addition of a phosphate group
-done by protein kinases -makes a conformational change in enzymes and receptors that can activate or deactivate them |
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what is glycerol?
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-soluble in water
-backbone is central to all lipids, makes up triglycerides |
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what is phosphorylation used for?
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-polymerization
-muscle contractions -ion pumps |
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what is FA?
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-long unbranched tail that makes up triglycerides
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what is adipose?
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-thermal insulation
-energy storage -protection |
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what is a kinase?
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protein that phosphorylates
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what is polymerization?
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reacting monomers together in a reaction to form polymer chains
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what is a phospholipid?
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-main component of cell membrane
-make up the bilayer |
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what is cholesterol?
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-steriod synthesis
-plasma membrane -fluidity |
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what is polymerization?
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reacting monomers together to form polymer chains
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what is an active site?
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found on the enzyme that recognize the substrate to bind
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what is ATP used for?
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-transport
-chemical -mechanical |
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what is anaerobic respiration?
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-form of respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen
-electron transport chain is still used but a final electron acceptor must be present to allow electrons to pass through the system ex. sulfate, nitrate, sulfur |
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what happens to the energy in respiration?
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-stored in the gradient (ETC) and then used in a second reaction by ATP synthase to generate ATP
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what is fermentation?
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-a second form of oxygen-independent energy metabolism
-ATP is directly synthesized from phosphorylated intermediates |
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what is aerobic respiration?
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-set of the metabolic reactions that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP and then release waste products
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what is cellular respiration?
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-glucose is oxidized to CO2
-energy is released -stored in ATP -ATP can be hydrolyzed to transfer energy for work in the cell |
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what is keratin?
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protein in hair and nails
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what proteins are found in muscle?
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actin and myosin
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what are proteins also used for?
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-membrane ion pumps
-enzymes -antibodies -motor proteins |
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what are some monosaccharides?
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glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxiribose
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what are some disaccharides?
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sucrose, lactose
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what are some polysaccharides?
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starch, glycogen, cellulose
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what are the properties of solid water?
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-close particles
-all H bonds present |
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what are the properties of liquid water?
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-particles are somewhat near
-some H bonds have been broken |
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what are the properties of vapor water?
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-particles are really far apart
-all H bonds have been broken |
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what is the chemical reactivity of water?
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-participates in chemical reactions
-can ionize itself -an acid and a base |
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why are body solutions measured in milliosmoles?
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because body solutions are less concentrated
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what is the function of the plasma membrane?
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-defines cell boundary
-controls entry and exit -governs cell interactions |
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what is the fluid mosaic model?
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-membrane serves as an oily lake with proteins floating
-composed of lipids and proteins |
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what are membrane lipids?
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-lipids make up 98% of the membrane
-include phospholipids, cholesterol, glycoplipids |
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what is the phospholipid bilayer?
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-similar to triglycerides, one FA missing and phosphate group added
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what is glycocalyx?
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-fuzzy coat on membrane
-ID tag for the cell -composed of glycolipids and glycoproteins |
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what are microvilli?
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extensions of the membrane inceasing surface area for absorption
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what are integral proteins?
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extend through the phospholipid bilayer
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what is a transmembrane protein?
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a type of integral protein that can extend both sides of the membrane
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what are membrane proteins?
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-integral or peripheral
-anchored or floating -many funcations |
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what are peripheral proteins?
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span the edge of the bilayer
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what are the functions of membrane proteins?
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-transport
-enzymes -cell recognition -cell adhesion -membrane receptors |
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how are membrane proteins useful for transport?
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-provide a hydrophilic pathway for solutes
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how are membrane proteins receptors?
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-provide a binding site for the cell
ex. G protein linked receptor |
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what are G protein linked receptors?
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-receive message
-linked to internal peripheral G protein -activates enzyme -second messenger cAMP produced |
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how are membrane proteins enzymatic?
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-have active site exposed
-embedded in the membrane |
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what is intercellular joining?
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membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be hooked together
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how are membrane proteins involved in cell to cell recognition?
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some glycoproteins serve as ID tags that are specifically recognized by other cells
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what is special about proteins on the plasma membrane?
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-very specific
-control what goes in and out of the cell |
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what are cell adhesion molecules?
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proteins on the cell surface involved in binding with other cells or the extracellular matrix through cell adhesion
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what are channel proteins?
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-transmembrane proteins found in the bilayer that allow specific molecules to pass through
-open and close by charge, ligands, or mechanically |
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what are carrier proteins?
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-integral membrane proteins involved in the movement of ions, small molecules, or macromolecules across a the membrane
-may assist in the movement of substances by facilitated diffusion or active transport -these mechanisms of movement are known as carrier mediated transport |
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what are G proteins?
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family of proteins involved in transmitting chemical signals outside the cell and causing changes inside the cell
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what are second messengers?
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molecules that relay signals from receptors on the cell surface to target molecules inside the cell, the cytoplasm, or the nucleus
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what is membrane transport?
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refers to the collection of mechanisms that regulate the passage of solutes such as ions and small molecules through the lipid bilayer
-regulation of passage through the membrane is due to selective permeability |
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what is active transport?
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the movement of a substance against its concentration gradient (from low to high concentration)
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what is passive transport?
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-moving substances across the membrane
-does not include chemical energy, dependent on the permeability |
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what are the four kinds of passive transport?
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-filtration
-simple diffusion -osmosis -facilitated diffusion |
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what is a concentration gradient?
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measurement of how the concentration of something changes from one place to another
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what is filtration?
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-fluid moves through spaces between cells
-energy=fluid pressure ex. kidneys |
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what is simple diffusion?
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-small non polar lipids moving through the bilayer
-energy=gradient |
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what is facilitated diffusion?
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-requires membrane proteins to recept solutes are present to come into the cell
-energy=gradient -may have specificity |
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what is osmosis?
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-movement of water
-requires aquaporins -energy=gradient |
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what is an aquaporin?
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integral membrane proteins that form pores in the membrane of the cell
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what is a cotransporter?
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-integral membrane protein that is involved in secondary active transport
-binds to two molecules at a time and using the gradient of one solute's concentration to force the other molecule or ion against its gradient |
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what is an antiporter?
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cotransports in opposite direction
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what is a symporter?
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cotransports in the same direction
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what is a uniporter?
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one transport
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what is primary active transport?
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-energy=ATP
-can move particles up a gradient |
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what is secondary active transport?
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-energy=potential energy created by primary active transport
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what is a sodium potassium pump?
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active transport that moves potassium ions into and sodium ions out of a cell
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what are the steps of the sodium potassium pump?
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1. Na+ binds to the protein
2. causes protein to undergo phosphorylation by ATP 3. phosphorylation causes the protein to change shape, expelling Na+ out of the cell 4. extracellular K+ binds to the protein 5. causes the phosphate to be released and the protein returns to it's original shape 6. K+ is released from the protein inside the cell 7. Na+ sites ready to bind Na+ again, cycle repeats |
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what is the formula for the sodium potassium pump?
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1 ATP = 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in
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what is the point of the sodium potassium pump?
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-set up secondary transport
-set up resting membrane potential -heat production -cell volume |
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what is resting membrane potential?
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-electrical potential energy, separation of charged ions
-interior of cell membrane is negative relative to outside which is created and maintained by the pump |
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what is vesicular transport?
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-movement of large molecules or multiple molecules using membrane bound vesicles
-endocytosis/exocytosis |
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what are cell junctions?
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-cells are often closely associated with other cells
-can be bound to each other by these -3 types: tight junctions, gap junctions, desmosomes |
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what are tight junctions?
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-impermeable
-prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space ex. arteries, veisn |
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what are desmosomes?
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-resist tension
-anchoring junctions bind adjacent cells together and form an internal tensions -reducing network of fibers ex. heart muscle |
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what are gap junctions?
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-communicate
-allow ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the next for intercellular communication |
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what is the cytoskeleton?
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-network of protein fibers in the cell
-provide support, determine shape, organize contents -can be connected to membrane proteins: microfilaments intermediate filaments microtubules |
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what is a microfilament?
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-make web inside plasma membrane
-provide support |
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what are intermediate filaments?
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-designed to resist stress
-intermediate in size -determine cell shape ex. desmosomes |
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what are microtubules?
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-not permanent
-largest in size -cellular railroad tracks |
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what is DNA?
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consists of two long polymers of simple units with backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds
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what is a nucleotide?
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-the monomer of DNA
-contains a nitrogenous base, sugar, and phosphate |
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what is a nitrogenous base?
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-adenine
-guanine -cytosine -thymine (DNA) -uracil (RNA) -hydrogen bond between opposing DNA strands to form the rungs of the double helix -A with T -C with G -U replaces T in RNA |
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what is deoxyribose?
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the sugar in DNA
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what is the double helix backbone?
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alternating sugar and phosphates, covalently bonded
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what is the double helix center?
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complimentary base paired nitrogenous bases, hydrogen bonded
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what is chromatin?
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-combination of DNA and proteins that make up the nucleus
-functions: -package DNA into a smaller volume to fit in the cell -to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis -prevent DNA damage -to control gene expression and replication |
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what are histones?
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proteins that DNA can wind
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what are nucleosomes?
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-basic unit of DNA packaging
-consisting of a segment of DNA wound around a histone protein -look like beads on a string |
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what are genes?
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-working subunits of DNA
-code for 1 protein |
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what is the genetic code?
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the sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that determines the specific amino acid sequence in the synthesis of proteins
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what is a codon?
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-sequence of three nucleotide base pairs
-specify which amino acid will be added next during protein synthesis -code for 1 amino acid -found on mRNA -complimentary to anticodons on tRNA during translation |
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what is RNA?
|
-single stranded
-uracil replaces thymine -sugar=ribose -short lived -can leave the nucleus -many copies are produced -3 types: mRNA tRNA rRNA |
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what is mRNA?
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-carries messages of DNA information to the ribosome
-has codons complimentary to anticodons |
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what is tRNA?
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-transfers amino acids to ribosome
-has anticodons complimentary to codons |
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what is rRNA?
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-structure of ribosome
-catalyzes peptide bonds |
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what determines the phenotype?
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-proteins
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what is protein synthesis?
|
-process where DNA encodes for the production of amino acids and proteins
-can be divided into two parts: -transcription -translation |
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what is transcription?
|
-occurs in the nucleus
-RNA is transcribed complementary to DNA for one gene -makes pre-mRNA |
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what is pre-mRNA?
|
-contains exons and introns
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what are exons?
|
expressed regions that code for amino acids, kept and spliced
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what are introns?
|
do not code for amino acids, removed
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what is RNA splicing?
|
sealing the gap after removing the introns
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what are the steps to transcription?
|
-RNA is transcribed complentary to DNA for one gene
-pre-mRNA is made -exons are expressed for amino acids and splice after introns are removed -mRNA leaves the nucleus |
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what is translation?
|
-occurs in the cytoplasm
-base pairs are translated to amino acid sequence -amino acids brought to ribosome based on mRNA sequence by the tRNA -covalently linked to form peptides by rRNA |
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what is a ribosome?
|
assembles the twenty specific amino acid molecules to form the particular protein molecule determined by the nucleotide sequence of an RNA molecule
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what is a polyribosome?
|
a cluster of ribosomes connected by a strand of mRNA and actively synthesizing protein
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what is the cell cycle?
|
-interphase
-G1, S, G2 -mitosis -cytokinesis |
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what is interphase?
|
-the phase between divisions
-has 3 subphases: -G1 -S -G2 |
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what is Gap 1 (G1) phase?
|
normal cell function and growth
|
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what is the synthesis (S) phase?
|
-DNA replication:
-helix unwinds -make new strand that is complementary to old (semiconservative) |
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what is Gap 2 (G2) phase?
|
produce and accumulate needed materials for mitotic phase
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what is the mitotic phase?
|
cell divison
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what is mitosis?
|
nuclear division
|
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what is cytokinesis?
|
cytoplasmic division
|
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how is the cell cycle controlled?
|
-cyclin dependent kinases (CDK's)
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what are cyclin dependent kinases?
|
-always available but switched on/off
-inactive unless enough cyclin is present -control passage from: -G1 to S at the G1 checkpoint -G2 to M at the G2 checkpoint |
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what is the maturation promoting factor?
|
-consists of cyclin and CDK's
-quantity of cyclin varies in cell cycle -the CDK's are always present -a specific amount of MPF must accumulate in the cell at the G2 checkpoint to progess to M phase |
|
|
what is cyclin?
|
family of proteins that control the progression of cells through the cell cycle by activating CDK's
|
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|
what are cell cycle switches?
|
-cyclin builds up and binds to MPF
-only way to go through mitosis is with enough MPF -MPF dpends on amount of cyclin present |
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what are the functions of the blood?
|
-transport
-protection/prevention -regulation |
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what does the blood transport?
|
-oxygen and CO2
|
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how does the blood protect and prevent?
|
-through clotting
-from disease |
|
|
how does the blood regulate?
|
-through pH
-temperature -fluid distribution |
|
|
what are the properties of blood?
|
-quantity
-viscosity -pH -temperature |
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|
what is blood's quantity?
|
4-6 liters (1 and 1/2 gallons)
|
|
|
what is the blood's viscosity/thickness?
|
5 times that of water
|
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|
what is the blood's pH?
|
highly regulated
|
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what is blood's temperature?
|
higher than body temperature
|
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|
what are the components of blood?
|
-plasma
-erythrocytes -leukocytes -platelets |
|
|
what is a centrifuge?
|
spins the blood sample collected and separates it's components
|
|
|
what is plasma?
|
-90% water
-contains 100+ solutes such as: gases, nutrients, hormones, wastes, and electrolytes -8% protein: albumin and globulins |
|
|
what is albumin?
|
-component of plasma
-transports solutes -pH buffer |
|
|
what are globulins?
|
-protein of plasma
-clotting -immunity -transport ex. Fibrinogens |
|
|
what is fibrinogen?
|
a globulin protein that is stimulated to produce fibrin in coagulation
|
|
|
why are blood cells lost?
|
-bleeding
-aging, break down, excreted |
|
|
how are blood cells replaced?
|
-process called hemopoiesis
-all cel types are produced from this and a common stem cell called hemopoietic stem cells (HSC) |
|
|
what is hemopoiesis?
|
blood cell production
|
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|
what are hemopoietic stem cells?
|
common stem cell that all cell types are produced from
|
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|
what is bone marrow?
|
vital element of the lymphatic system, as it produces lymphocytes and acts to prevent the backflow of lymph
|
|
|
what are erythrocytes?
|
-red blood cells
-make up 45% of the blood |
|
|
what is plasma?
|
-the liquid portion
-makes up 55% of the blood |
|
|
what are leukocytes?
|
-white blood cells
-make up less than 1% of the blood |
|
|
what are platelets?
|
-cell fragments
-make up less than 1% of the blood |
|
|
what do erythrocytes do?
|
-transport O2 and CO2
|
|
|
what are the characteristics of erythrocytes?
|
-biconcave
-no nucleus or organells -have glycolipids on membrane -durable cytoskeleton |
|
|
what is hemoglobin?
|
-4 proteins=2 alpha, 2 beta, make up a globin
-move 4 O2 at once |
|
|
what is a heme?
|
-red pigment
-iron atom -1 heme per chain -each heme binds 1 02 |
|
|
what is oxyhemoglobin?
|
-bound O2
-bright red |
|
|
what is deoxyhemoglobin?
|
-no O2
-dark red |
|
|
what is carbaminohemoglobin?
|
-bound CO2
-binds globin |
|
|
what is hematocrit?
|
-% volume of blood that is RBC's which is ~45%
|
|
|
what is erythropoiesis?
|
-process of RBC formation
-takes 3-5 days |
|
|
how long do erythrocytes live?
|
120 days and then need to be replaced
|
|
|
what is the process of erythropoiesis?
|
1. HSC--->erythroblast
-divison -protein sythesis 2. erythroblast--->reticulocyte -enters blood -loses nucleus -keeps ribosomes 3. 1-2 days to mature -loses ribosomes -mature erythrocyte |
|
|
what is an erythroblast?
|
a nucleated cell in bone marrow
|
|
|
what is a reticulocyte?
|
immature red blood cells that circulate in the blood for 1-2 days to mature
|
|
|
what is erythropoietin?
|
-hormone made in the kidney
-produced when oxygen level in the blood is too low |
|
|
what is hypoxemia?
|
-low oxygen in the blood
|
|
|
what causes hypoxemia?
|
-blood loss
-anemia -pneumonia -lung disease -elevation -low RBC's -low Hb |
|
|
what are the steps of erythrocyte death and degradation?
|
-hemolysis
-globin hydrolyzed to amino acids and recycled -iron released bound to transferrin and recycled -remainder bilirubin excreted |
|
|
what is hemolysis?
|
-rupture of the erythrocyte
-hemoglobin released -heme and globin splitting |
|
|
what is transferrin?
|
transports iron through the blood to be excreted
|
|
|
what is bilirubin?
|
-the remainder excretions after erythrocyte death and degradation
-too much=jaundice -determines poop color |
|
|
what are erythrocyte disorders?
|
-polycythemia
-anemia |
|
|
what is polycythemia?
|
too many erythrocytes
|
|
|
what causes polycythemia?
|
-high hematocrit
-lung disease -blood doping -elevation change -dehydration -bone marrow cancers -dangers= high HR, BP, BV, viscosity --- heart attack and stroke |
|
|
what is anemia?
|
too few or abnormal erythrocytes
|
|
|
what causes anemia?
|
-low iron
-low Hb |
|
|
what are the kinds of anemia?
|
-pernicious= low B12 absorption or low Hb
-sickle cell= doesn't flow right because of RBC shape |
|
|
what are the effects of anemia?
|
leads to kidney failure due to low erythropoietin
|
|
|
what are the characteristics of leukocytes?
|
-complete cells with organelles and nuclei
-migrate out of blood after a few hours of circulation -5 types: -Neutrophils -Eosinophils -Basophils -Lymphocytes -Monocytes |
|
|
what are neutrophils?
|
-most abundant leukocyte
-phagocytic -respiratory burst |
|
|
what are eosinophils?
|
-live in mucus membranes
-destroy parasitic worms -dispose of allergens -kills with hydrogen peroxide and neurotoxins |
|
|
what are basophils?
|
-allow other cells to get to affected area
-secrete 3 types of chemicals: -histamines -heparin -leukotrienes |
|
|
what do histamines stimulate?
|
vasodialation
|
|
|
what is heparin?
|
an anticoagulant
|
|
|
what are leukotrienes?
|
attract neutrophils and eosinophils
|
|
|
what are lymphocytes?
|
-stimulate immune response
-T cells, B cells, NK cells |
|
|
what are monocytes?
|
-become macrophages
-large phagocytic cells that destroy: -dead cells -foreign cells -pathogens |
|
|
what are some leukocyte disorders?
|
-leukopenia
-leukocytosis |
|
|
what is leukopenia?
|
-too few leukocytes
-causes: -lead, arsenic, mercury poison -radiation sickness -illness, AIDS, pox, polio, flu |
|
|
what is leukocytosis?
|
-too many leukocytes
-causes: -infection -allergies -leukemia |
|
|
what is leukopoiesis?
|
-the production of white blood cells
-neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils are produced in bone marrow -lymphocytes and monocytes are normally derived from lymphoid tissue |
|
|
what are the functions of platelets?
|
-prevent blood loss through:
-vasodialtion -clotting -attract leukocytes to affected area -secrete growth fators for cell repair |
|
|
what is thrombopoiesis?
|
platelet formation
|
|
|
what are the steps to thrombopoiesis?
|
HSC--->megakaryoblast
-mitosis with no cytokinesis -becomes megakaryocyte -segments break off and enter blood |
|
|
what is a megakaryoblast?
|
-what the hemopoietic stem cell (HSC) becomes during thrombopoiesis
-huge nucleus |
|
|
what is thrombopoietin?
|
hormone that is created by the liver and kidney that regulates the production of platelets by the bone marrow
|
|
|
what is a megakaryocyte?
|
bone marrow cell responsible for the production of platelets
|
|
|
what is hemostasis?
|
blood clotting
|
|
|
what are the functions of hemostasis?
|
-prevent blood loss
-form clot -stimulate growth and repair |
|
|
what are the steps of hemostasis?
|
-vascular spasm
-platelet plug -clot retraction -coagulation |
|
|
what is vascular spasm?
|
-lasts 20-30 minutes
-vasoconstriction -reduces flow -reduces diameter -reduces loss |
|
|
what is vascular spasm triggered by?
|
-smooth muscle injury
-platelets -pain receptors |
|
|
what is a platelet plug?
|
-blocks
-exposed collagen fibers have platelets adhere to them -other platelets stick to each other and grow spiny structures |
|
|
what is clot retraction?
|
-platelets have actin and myosin which contract at 30-60 minutes
-draw the broken vessel closed |
|
|
what is coagulation?
|
-actual clotting
-most effective -complicated chemical reaction -fibrinogen (protein) stimulated to produce fibrin -sticky glue and fibers form mesh webbing |
|
|
what is vasoconstriction?
|
the narrowing of blood vessels from contractions of the muscular wall of the vessels
|
|
|
what is fibrinolysis?
|
after vessel is repaired clot must be removed by a plasmin
|
|
|
what is a plasmin?
|
clot eating enzyme that allows for normal blood flow in the vessel
|
|
|
what are some clotting disorders?
|
-hemophilia
-thrombosis -embolism |
|
|
what is hemophilia?
|
-a deficiency in one of the clotting factors
-symptoms: -uncontrolled bleeding into joints -hematomas |
|
|
what is thrombosis?
|
-unwanted clotting in unbroken vessels
-may obstruct vessel -may break off |
|
|
what is an embolism?
|
sudden blockage in an artery
|
|
|
what is a pathogen?
|
anything capable of causing illness
|
|
|
what are the external barriers of the immune system?
|
-skin
-mucus -sweat, tears, saliva |
|
|
what are the non-specific immune responses?
|
-phagocytosis
-antimicrobial proteins -NK cells -fever -inflammation and phagocyte mobilization |
|
|
what are the specific immune responses?
|
-cell mediated
-humoral |
|
|
how does the skin serve as an external barrier?
|
-contains keratin
-tough, outer surface |
|
|
how does mucus serve as an external barrier?
|
-ensnares microbes
-contained lysozymes (break down) |
|
|
how do sweat, tears, and saliva serve as an external barrier?
|
-acidic
-lysozymes -antimicrobial proteins |
|
|
how does areolar tissue serve as an external barrier?
|
contains hyaluronic acid that is sticky and webbed
|
|
|
what 2 cells types are used in phagocytosis?
|
-neutrophils
-macrophages |
|
|
what kind of phagocytosis do neutrophils perform?
|
respiratory burst
|
|
|
what is respiratory burst?
|
-chemical killing zone
-neutrophil has lysozome -release the contents by exocytosis -release peroxide and bleach -kills pathogen, neutrophil, and neighbor cells |
|
|
what kind of phagocytosis do macrophages perform?
|
plain phagocytosis
|
|
|
what is interferon?
|
-antimicrobial protein
-cells infected with virus alert neighboring cells -neighboring cells produce antiviral proteins |
|
|
what is complement?
|
-group of 30+ proteins that circulate in the blood inactive
-once activated they: -secrete histamine -clear the antigens from the blood -opsonization of foreign cells -cytolysis |
|
|
what is histamine?
|
-chemical that causes inflammation
|
|
|
what is opsonization?
|
-coating the pathogen with proteins
-easier for phagocyte to attach |
|
|
what are NK cells?
|
-release perforins and granzymes
|
|
|
what are perforins?
|
results in hole in pathogen membrane
|
|
|
what are granzymes?
|
causes cell to undergo apoptosis (self destruct from the inside out)
|
|
|
what does fever do?
|
-inceases body temperature
-stimulated by pyrogens -increased in the hypothalamus set point -secrete prostaglandins (these are blocked when we take tylenol) |
|
|
what are the benefits of fever?
|
-promote production of interferon
-high temp=high metabo rate= high cell repair -inhibit pathogen replication |
|
|
what does inflammation do?
|
-limits the spread of pathogens
-removes cell debris -initiate growth and repair |
|
|
what are the 4 signs of inflammation?
|
-redness
-swelling -heat -pain |
|
|
what is the process of inflammation?
|
1. vasodialation is stimulated by histamines and leukotrienes resulting in redness and heat
2. increased capillary permeability leads to swelling and pain |
|
|
what does inflammation lead to?
|
phagocyte mobilization
|
|
|
what are different mobilizations of phagocytes?
|
1. margination (sticking to capillary wall)
2. diapedesis (crawling out of the blood) 3. positive chemotaxis (moving towards the chemical) |
|
|
what is pus?
|
dead human cells, dead foreign cells, live pathogens, cell dubris, and fluid
|
|
|
what is pus?
|
dead human cells, dead foreign cells, live pathogens, cell dubris, and fluid
|
|
|
what is leukocytosis?
|
too many leukocytes.. causes infection, allergies, and leukemia
|
|
|
what is leukocytosis?
|
too many leukocytes.. causes infection, allergies, and leukemia
|
|
|
what is margination?
|
-phagocyte mobilization
-cell adhesion molecules mark the area -leukocytes adhere to vessel |
|
|
what is margination?
|
-phagocyte mobilization
-cell adhesion molecules mark the area -leukocytes adhere to vessel |
|
|
what is diapedesis?
|
-phagocyte mobilization
-leukocytes migrate out of the vessel |
|
|
what is diapedesis?
|
-phagocyte mobilization
-leukocytes migrate out of the vessel |
|
|
what is chemotaxis?
|
-leukocytes migrate towards inflammatory chemicals
|
|
|
what is chemotaxis?
|
-leukocytes migrate towards inflammatory chemicals
|
|
|
what is an abscess?
|
a collection of pus in any part of the body that, in most cases, causes swelling and inflammation around it.
|
|
|
what is an abscess?
|
a collection of pus in any part of the body that, in most cases, causes swelling and inflammation around it.
|
|
|
what is an abscess?
|
a collection of pus in any part of the body that, in most cases, causes swelling and inflammation around it.
|
|
|
what does it mean to be immunocompetent?
|
Having the normal bodily capacity to develop an immune response following exposure to an antigen.
|
|
|
what does it mean to be immunocompetent?
|
Having the normal bodily capacity to develop an immune response following exposure to an antigen.
|
|
|
what does it mean to be immunocompetent?
|
Having the normal bodily capacity to develop an immune response following exposure to an antigen.
|
|
|
what is an antigen?
|
-any molecule that triggers an immune response
-may be surface proteins, cell walls, plasma membrane, toxins, venoms, etc. |
|
|
what is an antigen?
|
-any molecule that triggers an immune response
-may be surface proteins, cell walls, plasma membrane, toxins, venoms, etc. |
|
|
what is an antigen?
|
-any molecule that triggers an immune response
-may be surface proteins, cell walls, plasma membrane, toxins, venoms, etc. |
|
|
what is cell mediated immune response?
|
-involves T cells
-has an MHC I, any nucleated cell -has an MHC II, antigen presenting cell -CD8 bind MHC I, become Tc Cells -CD4 bind MHC II, become Th cells -Tc cells attack -Th cells activate B cells and Tc cells |
|
|
what is cell mediated immune response?
|
-involves T cells
-has an MHC I, any nucleated cell -has an MHC II, antigen presenting cell -CD8 bind MHC I, become Tc Cells -CD4 bind MHC II, become Th cells -Tc cells attack -Th cells activate B cells and Tc cells |
|
|
what is cell mediated immune response?
|
-involves T cells
-has an MHC I, any nucleated cell -has an MHC II, antigen presenting cell -CD8 bind MHC I, become Tc Cells -CD4 bind MHC II, become Th cells -Tc cells attack -Th cells activate B cells and Tc cells |
|
|
what is a cytotoxic T cell?
|
-Tc cell
-same as NK cells but have MHC I and CD8 (specificity) |
|
|
what is a cytotoxic T cell?
|
-Tc cell
-same as NK cells but have MHC I and CD8 (specificity) |
|
|
what is a cytotoxic T cell?
|
-Tc cell
-same as NK cells but have MHC I and CD8 (specificity) |
|
|
what is an abscess?
|
a collection of pus in any part of the body that, in most cases, causes swelling and inflammation around it.
|
|
|
what does it mean to be immunocompetent?
|
Having the normal bodily capacity to develop an immune response following exposure to an antigen.
|
|
|
what is an antigen?
|
-any molecule that triggers an immune response
-may be surface proteins, cell walls, plasma membrane, toxins, venoms, etc. |
|
|
what is cell mediated immune response?
|
-involves T cells
-has an MHC I, any nucleated cell -has an MHC II, antigen presenting cell -CD8 bind MHC I, become Tc Cells -CD4 bind MHC II, become Th cells -Tc cells attack -Th cells activate B cells and Tc cells |
|
|
what is a cytotoxic T cell?
|
-Tc cell
-same as NK cells but have MHC I and CD8 (specificity) |
|
|
what is a T helper cell?
|
-Th cell
-stimulate by APC -MHC II of APC binds it's CD4 surface protein -activate Tc cells and B cells |
|
|
what is major histocompatibility complex?
|
-human surface receptor
-either I (nucelated cell) or II (APC) -binds CD4 or CD8 |
|
|
what is CD4?
|
glycoprotein that binds MHC II that become cytotoxic T cells
|
|
|
what is CD8?
|
glycoprotein that binds MHC II that become T helper cells
|
|
|
what are memory T cells?
|
-live longer
-work faster -prevent second infection |
|
|
what is humoral immune response?
|
-B cells produce antibodies
-called this because antigens are dissolved in fluids -don't attack directly |
|
|
what are the steps of humoral immune response?
|
recognition
-B cell with receptors which bind anitgen directly -stimulate memory B cells attack -by antibodies -some B cells become plasma cells |
|
|
what are plasma cells?
|
-some B cells become these
-secrete antibodies -live 4-5 days |
|
|
what are antibodies?
|
-y shaped that bind antigens
-may lead to pathogen: neutrolization exposed complement sites agglutination precipitation |
|
|
what are memory B cells?
|
stimulated after B cell receptors bind antigen directly
|
|
|
what is the function of the lymphatic system?
|
-fluid recovery
-immunity -lipid absorption |
|
|
what does fluid recovery in the lymphatic system consist of?
|
-fluid leaks from capillaries to tissue spaces
-needs to be returned to blood |
|
|
what does immunity in the lymphatic system consist of?
|
-picks up foreign cells
-filters through lymph nodes |
|
|
what are the components of the lymphatic system?
|
-lymph
-lymphatic vessels -lymphatic cells -lymphatic tissues -lymphatic organs |
|
|
what are the properties of the lymph?
|
-clear and colorless
-similar to plasma |
|
|
what may lymph contain?
|
-lymphocytes, macrophages, lipids, pathogens, cell debris, cancer cells, hormones
|
|
|
what are lymphatic vessels?
|
-similar to blood vessels
-in most tissues -closed at one end -have overlapping cells that open and close like valves |
|
|
how do lymphatic vessels flow?
|
-do not pump
-slow, low pressure -moves due to smooth muscle contraction -valves prevent back flow |
|
|
what is the direction of lymphatic system flow?
|
enters blood in
subclavian vein ---> superior vena cava ---> heart |
|
|
what are lymphatic cells?
|
-NK cells
-T and B lymphocytes -macrophages -dendritic cells -reticular cells |
|
|
what are dendritic cells?
|
APC that are mobile
|
|
|
what are reticular cells?
|
APC that are stationary
|
|
|
what is lymphatic tissue?
|
-loosely scattered aggregation of lymphocytes
-common in mucus membranes -digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts |
|
|
what are lymph organs?
|
-red bone marrow
-thymus -lymph nodes -tonsils -spleen |
|
|
what is red bone marrow responsible for as a lymph organ?
|
-hemopoiesis
-B cell education |
|
|
what is the thymus responsible for as a lymph organ?
|
-T cell education
-secrete hormones to control lymphocytes (located between sternum and heart) |
|
|
what are the lymph nodes characteristics?
|
~450
-located in the neck, armpit, and groin -filter and cleanse the lymph -activate T and B cells |
|
|
what are the tonsils responsible for?
|
-entrance to pharynx
-guarding against inhaled and ingested pathogens |
|
|
what is the spleen responsible for?
|
-between kidney, ribs, and stomach
-dead RBC's -monitor for antigens |
