Chapter 2: How Do We Know?

Front 1

The Steps of Scientific Research

Back 1

1. Define a topic
2. Review the literature
3. State your hypothesis (dependent & independent variables)
4. Design a research plan
5. Sampling/collect the data
6. Stratified random sample
7. Statistical analysis
8. Draw conclusions

Front 2

Hypothesis

Back 2

Predicts the relationship between two or more variables and ways in which variables are related to each other

Front 3

Theory

Back 3

Statements or explanations of how two or more facts about the social world are related to each other

Try to explain social interactions, behaviors, and problems

Allows the scientist to make predictions about the social world

Front 4

Dependent and Independent Variables

Back 4

Variables are concepts (ideas) that can vary in frequency of occurrence from one time, place, or person to another

The independent variable is hypothesized to cause the change - it comes first and effects the dependent variable

Front 5

Spurious Relationship

Back 5

Occur when there is no casual relationship between the independent and dependent variables but they vary together, often due to a third variable working on both of them

Front 6

Operationalizing Variables

Back 6

Operationalization is the process of determining how to measure concepts

To operationalize variables, researchers must link social concepts, such as poverty, to specific measurement indicators

Front 7

Research Methods

Back 7

Surveys (interviews & questionnaires)

Observation Studies (aka field methods) (participant & nonparticipant observation)

Controlled Experiments (experimental & control group)

Existing Sources (secondary & content anaylsis)

Front 8

Control & Experimental Group

Back 8

Control Group - subjects are not exposed to the variable the experimenter wants to test

Experimental Group - people are exposed to the variable being studied to test its effects

Control group provides base line to which the experimental group can be compared

Front 9

Random Sample

Back 9

Most common form of representative sample

Everyone has an equal chance of being selected for the study - researcher can get an accurate picture of the total population

Front 10

Symbolic Interaction Theory

Back 10

Concerned with how people create shared meanings regarding symbols and events and then interact on the basis of those meanings

Assumes that groups form around interacting individuals

Symbolic Interaction Theory stresses human agency (the active role of individuals in creating their social environment)

Front 11

The Chicago School of Symbolic Interaction Theory

Back 11

Believes that humans have the ability to decide how to act based on their perceptions of the social world (aka their "definition of the situation")

Our notion of who we are - our self - emerges from social experience and interaction with others

Front 12

The Iowa School of Symbolic Interaction Theory

Back 12

Sees individual identities connected to roles and positions within organizations

If we hold several positions - these positions form a relatively stable core self

Front 13

Rational Choice Theory (AKA Exchange Theory)

Back 13

Assumes that human behavior involves choices and that people chart a course of action based on rational decisions and self-interest - act in a way to maximize rewards and minimize costs

Social behavior is an exchange activity - a transaction in which resources are given and received

Front 14

Structural-functionalist theory (functional theory)

Back 14

Assumes that all parts of the social structure, the culture, and the social processes work together to make the whole society run smooth

Durkheim believed that because people need groups for survival, they adhere to the groups rules so they fit in - feels right to behave in accordance with what is expected

Front 15

Conflict Theory

Back 15

Conflict and potential for conflict underlie all social relations

Social change is desireable, particularly changes that bring about a greater degree of social equality

The existing social order relects powerful people imposing their values and beliefs upon the weak

Front 16

Feminist Theory

Back 16

Feminists argue that sociology has been sominated by a male perspective and that the male perspective does not give a complete view of the social world