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125 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

What is homeostasis?

The process by which a constant internal environment is maintained despite changes in the environment.

What is dynamic equilibrium?

A state of stability with fluctuating limits.

What is negative feedback?

The process by which a mechanism is activated to restore conditions to their original state.

What is positive feedback?

The process by which a small effect is amplified.

What are hormones?

Chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body.

What is endocrine hormones?

Chemicals secreted by endocrine glans directly into the blood.

What is insulin?

Hormone produced by the Islet of Langerhans in the pancreas; insulin is secreted when blood sugar levels are high.

What is Human Growth Hormone?

Hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates growth of the body; also known as somatotropin (STH).

What is ephinephrine/norepinephrine?

A hormone produced in the adrenal medulla that accelerates heart rate and body reactions during a crisis (flight or fight response).

What is pituitary gland?

Gland at the base of the brain that, together with the hypothalamus, functions as a control centre, coordinating the endocrine and nervous system.

What is releasing hormone?

A peptide produced by the hypothalamus that stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release a stored hormones, also called a releasing factor.

What is inhibiting factor?

Chemical that inhibits production of a hormone by the anterior pituitary gland.

At what conditions does the human body work best?

37 degrees celsius, 0.1% blood glucose, and blood pH of 7.35.

What are some examples of homeostasis in your body?

Evaporation of water through sweat to regulate body temperature, kidneys maintain wear valance, pancreas regulates blood sugar, blood distributes heat, skeletal muscles contract and release heat, and hypothalamus regulates temperature and changes in osmotic pressure.

What are the three functional components of all homeostatic controls?

Receptor, coordinating centre, effector.




receptor ---> coordinating centre ---> effector ---> makes adjustment

What is the difference between negative and positive feedback systems?

negative feedback = prevents small changes from becoming too large. Most homeostatic mechanisms operate on negative feedback.




positive feedback = reinforces change, and allows a discrete physiological event to be accomplished, and when it is done, the system stops.

What are/is the function of hormones?

Hormones are chemical regulators produced by cells in one part of the body that affect cells in another part. They speed up or slow down body processes.

What are endocrine hormones, and how are they sent to their effectors?

Chemicals produced by endocrine glands and secreted directly into the blood are endocrine hormones. The circulatory system carries these hormones to various organs.

What are the endocrine glands?

Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid/parathyroid, adrenal gland, pancreas/islet of langerhans, ovaries, and testes.

What are the two ways hormones are classified?

By activation site (target/non-target) and by chemical nature (steroid/protein).

What is the difference between target and non-target hormones?

Non-target = affect many cells or tissues throughout the body - insulin.




Target = affect specific cells or target tissues - gastrin.

How do the endocrine and nervous system work together?

The nervous system allows the body to adjust quickly to changes in the environment, while the endocrine system is designed to maintain control over a long duration.

What is the role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?

The hypothalamus has subtle divisions between the nervous and endocrine system. It regulates the pituitary gland and the endocrine glands secrete chemicals that affect the nerve activity of the hypothalamus.

Which hormones affect which cells?

It is all dependant on which receptor sites are present, and the number of receptor sites on each cell may differ.

How do peptide/protein hormones work?

Water soluble hormones act from the outside of the cell by binding to receptor sites on the cell membrane, which activates enzymes in the cytoplasm to carry out functions.

How do steroid hormones work?

Fat soluble hormones act from inside the cell by diffusing into a cell and binding with receptor molecules in the cytoplasm, which signals cells to produce protein.

How do we stop the secretion of hormones after the desired affect is achieved?

Negative feedback responses.

What are/is the function of the Pituitary gland?

The pituitary gland is the "master gland," which exercises control over the other endocrine glands. It is connected to the hypothalamus and stores and produces hormones. It stimulates the release of hormones by nerves and releasing hormones. Has a posterior and anterior lobe.

What are/is the function of the posterior lobe?

The posterior lobe doesn't synthesize hormones, but instead stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus.

What are/is the function of the anterior lobe?

The anterior lobe synthesizes hormones.

What are/is the function of inhibiting factors?

Inhibiting factors stop pituitary secretions by travelling from the hypothalamus to the pituitary via blood vessels.

What is the location, target, and function of Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH)?

Location: Anterior Pituitary


Target: Thyroid Gland


Function: Regulates release of thyroxin

What is the location, target, and function of Corticotropin Adrenal Steroid (ACTH)?

Location: Anterior Pituitary


Target: Adrenal Cortex


Function: Releases hormones for stress responses

What is the location, target, and function of Human Growth Hormone (hGH)?

Location: Anterior Pituitary


Target: Most cells


Function: Increase in cell mass and number of cells

What is the location, target, and function of Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)?

Location: Anterior Pituitary


Target: Ovaries, testes


Function: Stimulates egg and sperm development

What is the location, target, and function of Lutenizing Hormone (LH)?

Location: Anterior Pituitary


Target: Ovaries, testes


Function: Stimulates ovulation or testosterone production.

What is the location, target, and function of Prolactin?

Location: Anterior Pituitary


Target: Mammary glands


Function: Stimulates milk production in females.

What is the location, target, and function of Oxytocin?

Location: Posterior Pituitary


Target: Uterus, mammary glands


Function: Aids in birth and milk release

What is the location, target, and function of Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)?

Location: Posterior Pituitary


Target: Kidneys


Function: Increase water reabsorption.

What is the Islet of Langerhans?

The hormone-producing cells of the pancreas; these cells are part of the endocrine system.

What is glucagon?

The hormone produced by the pancreas; when blood sugar levels are low, glucagon promotes conversion of glycogen to glucose.

What is diabetes?

A chronic disease in which the body cannot produce only insulin, or is unable to use properly the insulin it does make.

What is the adrenal medulla?

Found at the core of adrenal gland, it produces epinephrine and norepinephrine.

What is the adrenal cortex?

The outer region of the adrenal gland that produces glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.

What is norepinephrine?

Also known as noradrenaline, it initiates the flight-or-fight response by increasing heart rate and blood sugar.

What are glucocorticoids?

Any of the steroids produced by the adrenal cortex that help to regulate electrolyte and water balance.

What are mineralocorticoids?

Any of the steroids produced by the adrenal cortex that help to regulate carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism and inhibit the release of corticotrophin.

What are sex hormones?

Any hormones that affects the development and growth of sex organs.

What is cortisol?

Hormone that stimulates the conversion of amino acids to glucose by the liver.

What is adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?

The pituitary hormones that promotes cortisol released by the adrenal cortex, also called corticotrophin.

What are tropic hormones?

Hormones that stimulate a specific target gland to secrete other hormones.

What is aldosterone?

Hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that helps regulate water balance by increasing sodium retention and water re absorption by the kidneys.

Which two members of the endocrine system affect blood sugar levels in humans?

Specific cells in the pancreas and adrenal glands.

Where in the pancreas are the hormone producing cells located? What are the other type of cells produced in the pancreas?

The Islet of Langerhans.




Digestive enzymes (exocrine).

Which cells in the Islet of Langerhans produce insulin and glucagon?

Alpha cells = Glucagon




Beta cells = Insulin

What is the function of Insulin?

Insulin is released when blood sugar levels are high. It causes cells of the muscles, liver, and organs to become permeable to glucose. In the liver glucose is converted to glycogen - which is the primary storage form of glucose. This enable blood sugar levels to fall, returning to normal.

Draw the insulin feedback loop.

Stimulus: high blood glucose levels --->

Endocrine gland - pancreas/islet of langerhans ---> beta cells --->


Hormone: insulin --->


Target: liver (converts glucose --> glycogen), muscles, and cells of the body --->


Effect: blood glucose levels fall --->


Feedback: negative ---> (gland)



What is the function of glucagon?

Glucagon works in a complementary fashion with insulin. It is released when blood sugar levels are low, which promotes the conversion of glycogen to glucose, which is released into the blood. This causes blood sugar levels to rise, and return to normal.

Draw the glucagon feedback loop.

Stimulus: low blood glucose levels --->

Endocrine gland: pancreas/islet of langerhans ---> alpha cells --->


Hormone: glucagon --->


Target: Liver (glycogen --> glucose) --->


Effect: Raises blood glucose levels --->


Feedback: negative ---> (gland)

What are the symptoms of diabetes?

Often tired (despite increased glucose levels, little can move into the cell, so cells rely on other forms of energy such as fats and proteins, which are not easily accessible), excrete large amounts of urine (increased glucose concentration in nephrons draws water out of the plasma via osmosis), and often thirsty (excess urine production).

What causes diabetes?

Without adequate levels of insulin, blood sugar levels rise very sharply after meals - this is known as hyperglycaemia. In turn, the kidneys are unable to reabsorb all blood glucose that is filtered through them, so glucose appears in the urine.

What is the difference between type one and type two diabetes?

Type 1 - Juvenile onset, genetic condition where the Islet of Langerhans is unable to produce insulin due to early deterioration of b cells.




Type 2 - Maturity onset, decreased levels or ineffective use of insulin. Can be controlled with a healthier lifestyle.

How is diabetes managed?

No cure.




Diabetes can be maintained through the intake of drugs such as insulin.




Type two can be maintained through exercise and a healthy diet.

Where is the adrenal gland located?

Above the kidneys.

What are the inner and outer sections of the adrenal gland?

Inner = adrenal medulla




Outer = adrenal cortex

What is the function of the adrenal medulla?

The adrenal medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine, like the nervous system, which is our body's response to short term stress. Hormone producing cells are stimulated by the sympathetic nerves.

What is the function of epinephrine/norepinephrine?

In times of stress, epinephrine and norepinephrine are released from the adrenal medulla into the blood. Glycogen is converted to glucose in the liver to increase energy reserves for body tissues. The body attempts to obtain as much visual information as possible. Heart, breathing, and cell metabolism rates increase, and blood vessels dilate so more oxygen and nutrients can reach tissues.

Draw the norepinephrine/epinephrine feedback loop.

Stimulus: Short term stress (ex. fear) --->


Endocrine gland: Hypothalamus ---> Adrenal medulla --->


Hormone: epinephrine, norepinephrine --->


Target: Body tissues, muscles, and liver (converts glycogen --> glucose) --->


Effect: Increased heart rate, breathing rate, blood sugar, pupils and blood vessels dilate


--->


Feedback: Negative ---> (glands)

What is the function of the adrenal cortex?

To produce glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and sex hormones. Deals with long term stress. Reduces inflammation. Release of these hormones are controlled by ACTH in the anterior pituitary.



What is the function of glucocorticoids?

Glucocorticoids (ex. cortisol) increase levels of amino and fatty acids in the blood. Amino acids ---> glucose in the liver, increasing blood sugar levels. Fat in adipose tissue is broken down into fatty acids.




*Cortisol inhibits blood glucose intake in muscles - not brain.

What is the function of mineralocorticoids?

Mineralocorticoids (ex. aldosterone) indirectly regulate the levels of water by increasing salt and ion reabsorption in the kidneys. Maintains body fluid levels as sodium retains water.

Draw the cortisol feedback loop.

Stimulus: Long term stress (ex. IB exams, low blood glucose)


Endocrine gland: Hypothalamus ---> Anterior Pituitary---> Adrenal cortex --->


Hormone: releasing hormone ---> ACTH ---> cortisol (glucocorticoids + mineralocorticoids) --->


Target: Many tissues, muscles, and liver (converts glycogen --> glucose) --->


Effect: Protein + fat metabolism, increase blood glucose levels --->


Feedback: negative ---> (glands)

What is the thyroid gland?

A two-lobed gland at the base of the neck that regulates metabolic processes.

What are the parathyroid glands?

Four pea-sized glands in the thyroid gland that produce parathyroid hormone to regulate blood calcium and phosphate levels.

What is thyroxine (T4)?

Hormone produced by the thyroid gland that increases metabolism and regulates growth.

What is triiodothyronine (T3)?

Hormone produced by the thyroid gland that increases metabolism and regulates growth; contains three iodine atoms.

What is calcitonin?

Hormone produced by the thyroid gland that lowers calcium levels in the blood.

What is goitre?

A disorder that causes an enlargement of the thyroid gland.

What is parathyroid hormone (PTH)?

Hormone produced by the parathyroid glands, which will increase calcium levels in the blood and lower the levels of phosphates.

What are the three glands that affect cell metabolism?

Thyroid, parathyroid, anterior pituitary.

What is the function of the thyroid gland?

The thyroid gland's main function is to regulate metabolism. It produces thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T4), and calcitonin.

What is the function of T3 and T4?

T3 and T4 mainly serve to accelerate cell metabolism and growth. It also increases the number of respiratory enzymes, so more oxygen and ATP in cells. Their production is regulated by TSH produced in the anterior pituitary.

What is the function of calcitonin?

Calcitonin serves to lower blood calcium levels by promoting bone cells absorption, and decreased reabsorption in the intestines and kidneys.

What is the function of the parathyroid gland?

The parathyroid gland produces parathyroid hormone and lowers phosphate levels. It responds directly to chemical changes in their immediate surroundings. PTH also aids in the activation of vitamin D.

What is the function of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?

Parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium levels. It raises Ca2+ levels by promoting bone cells to release it and increasing absorption of calcium in the intestines and kidneys.

What is the function of the anterior pituitary in relation to cell metabolism?


The anterior pituitary produces human growth hormone, which influences growth of long bones and accelerates protein synthesis. It also secretes TSH, which stimulates the release of T3 and T4.

What is the function of TSH?

TSH stimulates the release of T3 and T4.

What is the function of hGH?

Human growth hormone regulates human growth and cell division. Effects most pronounced in the cartilage and bone cells, but affect all cells. It influences the growth of long bones and accelerates protein synthesis.

Compare two people, person A who secretes high levels of thyroid hormone, and person B who secretes low levels of thyroid hormone.

Person A - Oxidizes sugars and other nutrients at a faster rate. This person likely does not easily gain weight, and feels warmer.




Person B - Oxidizes sugars and other nutrients at a slower rate, and tends to break down sugars slower.

Blood calcium levels are controlled by which two hormones?

Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.

What is the importance of calcium in the body?

Teeth + skeletal development, blood clotting, nerve conduction, and muscle contraction.

Draw the feedback loop for T3, T4, and TSH.

Stimulus: Low metabolic rate --->


Endocrine gland: hypothalamus ---> Anterior pituitary ---> thyroid gland --->


Hormone: TSH ---> T3 + T4 --->


Target: Body cells + respiratory enzymes--->


Effect: increase oxygen levels, and speeds up metabolic reactions within the cell --->


Feedback: negative ---> (glands)

Draw the feedback loop for parathyroid hormone.

Stimulus: Low blood calcium levels --->


Endocrine gland: parathyroid --->


Hormone: parathyroid hormone --->


Target: kidneys, intestines, and bones --->


Effect: Increase kidney and intestinal reabsorption of calcium, bones release calcium


--->


Feedback: negative ---> (glands)

Draw the feedback loop for calcitonin.

Stimulus: High blood calcium levels --->


Endocrine gland: Thyroid gland --->


Hormone: calcitonin --->


Target: Kidneys, bones, intestines --->


Effect: Decrease in kidney and intestinal reabsorption of calcium, increased absorption of calcium in bones --->


Feedback: negative ---> (glands)

Why is iodine important to body processes?

Iodine is important for thyroid hormones (formation of.

What causes Goitre? What are the symptoms?

When there is not enough iodine, thyroid production and secretion of thyroxin drops, causing more + more TSH to be produced. This increased thyroid stimulations means enlarging of thyroid cells, leading to the enlarging of the thyroid.

What is the consequence of having abnormally high amounts of calcium in your blood?

High amounts of calcium can cause it to collect in blood vessels or form hard structures in kidneys - kidney stones.

What is the consequence of having abnormally low amounts of calcium in your blood?

Calcium is important for many body processes such as blood clotting, synaptic transmission, and muscle contraction. It is also vital for a strong skeleton, so the prolonged breakdown of bone is dangerous.

What is the effect of hyper secretion of hGH?

Gigantism and acromegaly.

What is the effect of hypo secretion of hGH?

Dwarfism.

Draw the feedback loop for hGH.

Stimulus: Human growing --->

Endocrine gland: Hypothalamus ---> anterior pituitary --->


Hormone: Human growth hormone --->


Target: mostly bones + cartilage, but all cells


--->


Effect: break down of fats (muscles use it as fuel), increase blood glucose (glycogen ---> glucose), protein synthesis, increased cell division --->


Feedback: Negative ---> (glands)

What is antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

A hormone that causes the kidneys to increase water reabsorption.


What are osmo-receptors?

Sensory receptors in the hypothalamus that detect changes in the osmotic pressure of the blood, and surrounding extracellular fluids (ECF).

What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

A functional unit near a kidney glomerulus that controls renin release in response to changes in blood pressure.

How does the body adjust for water intake?

Increased water intake = increase urine output.




Decrease water intake = decrease urine output.

What hormones regulate body fluids?

ADH and aldosterone.

What is the function of ADH?

The main function of ADH is to conserve body water by decreasing urine output.




*diuresis = urine formation


antidiuresis = stop formation


antidiuretic hormone

Draw the feedback loop for ADH (High osmotic pressure).

Stimulus: high fluid pressure ---> thirsty ---> drink water ---> low pressure --->


Endocrine gland: Osmo-receptors in hypothalamus ---> posterior pituitary gland --->


Hormone: ADH --->


Target: Kidneys --->


Effect: Increased reabsorption of water in kidneys + urine production --->


Feedback: negative ---> (glands)

What effect does ADH have on the nephron?

ADH makes the upper distal tubules + collecting duct permeable to water. When this happens, the concentration of NaCl increases in the intercellular space, creating osmotic pressure the draws water from the upper suction of the distal tubule + collecting duct.

What is the function of aldosterone?

Aldosterone indirectly affects the water balance by regulating ion/salt balance. Salt retains water.

Draw the Aldosterone feedback loop.

Stimulus: Low blood volume/pressure/solute


--->


Endocrine gland: Osmo-receptors hypothalamus ---> anterior pituitary ---> adrenal cortex --->


Hormone: ACTH ---> aldosterone --->


Target: Kidneys --->


Effect: Increased water reabsorption + Na+ reabsorption + osmotic pressure/volume --->


Feedback: negative ---> (glands)

What are prostaglandins?

A group of hormones that act on the cells that produce them in response to cell damage produced; by most cells.

What are anabolic steroids?

Substances that are designed to mimic many of the muscle-building traits of the sex hormone testosterone.

What causes general adaptation syndrome?

Results from exposure to prolonged stress.

What happens in the nervous and endocrine system when a stressful stimulus is detected?

The nervous system rapidly adjusts to stress by increasing heart rate and diverting blood to the necessary muscles.




The endocrine system provides a slower but more sustained response to stimulus.

Why do stress hormones increase blood glucose during times of stress?

Increased blood glucose to cope with increased energy requirements during times of stress.

Draw the feedback loop for thyroxine (low ATP).

Stimulus: Exercise (Low ATP) --->


Endocrine gland: Hypothalamus ---> Anterior pituitary ---> thyroid gland --->


Hormone: Releasing hormone ---> TSH ---> thyroxine --->


Target: body cells --->


Effect: increased cell respiration and ATP --->


Feedback: negative ---> (glands)

What problems can high blood sugars cause?

High blood sugar alters the osmotic balance between blood and ECF which can lead to increased fluid uptake by the blood, meaning increased blood pressure.

What problems can increased blood pressure cause?

Increased blood pressure causes possible ruptures of blood vessels due to increased pressure, and increased blood clotting.

What problems can increased heart rate cause?

Increased blood pressure and possible destruction of the heart muscle.

What is the function of prostaglandins?

Prostaglandins are hormones that don't travel to other sites of the body and act on the cells that produce them. When tissues are damaged, tissue cells produce prostaglandins. Prostaglandins stimulate inflammation, increase blood flow, stimulate platelets to form blots, and produce fever + perception of pain.




*Aspirin blocks an enzyme involved in prostaglandin production.

What is the effect of epinephrine in times of stress?

Epinephrine increases and mobilizes carbohydrate and fat storages, increases blood glucose + fatty acids, and accelerates heart rate and activity of the respiratory system.

What is the effect of cortisol in times of stress?

Cortisol increases and mobilizes energy stores by converting proteins to glucose and elevates blood amino acids, blood glucose, and blood fatty acid levels.

What is the effect of glucagon in times of stress?

Glucagon increases and converts glycogen to glucose.

What is the effect of insulin in times of stress?

Insulin decreases and decreases the breakdown of glucose to glycogen.