Chapter 13 - Social Psychology

Front 1

what is the study of how we use cognitive processes - such as perception, memory, and thought - to help make sense of other people as well as ourselves.

Back 1

Social Cognition

Front 2

What is the difference between bottom-up processing and top-down processing?

Back 2

Bottom-up processing - the actual physical sensations received by the sensory equipment
Top-down processing - takes into account our expectations and beliefs about the world.

Front 3

What is one of the most powerful determinants of a first impression is a person's what?

Back 3

Physical Appearance

Front 4

Why do we rely on physical appearance to form a first impression?

Back 4

When you form a first impression you use the information that is available.

Front 5

What are general knowledge structures stored in memory?

Back 5

Schemas

Front 6

When schemas are about social experiences or people, they're commonly called what?

Back 6

social schemas

Front 7

When social schemas revolve around the traits and behaviors of groups and their members, they're called ________. and what are the 3 most common forms of this?

Back 7

stereotypes
gender, race, age

Front 8

what is the difference between prototype theories and exemplar theories?

Back 8

Prototype theories of stereotypes assume we store abstract representations of the typical features of a group; we then judge particular individuals based on their similarity to the prototype.
Exemplar theories assume we store memories of particular individuals, or exemplars, and these individual memories form the basis for stereotypes.

Front 9

Once stereotypes are activated, we expect certain kinds of behavior from members of groups. These expectations can produce a _______________________, which occurs when your expectations about a person's actions cause that person to behave in the expected way.

Back 9

self-fulfilling prophecy effect

Front 10

__________ can cause us to overgeneralize and place too much emphasis on the differences that exist between groups.

Back 10

Stereotypes

Front 11

what is the difference between prejudice and discrimination?

Back 11

prejudice - occurs when groups and their members are evaluate in a negative way.
Discrimination - occurs when those beliefs lead to behaviors that are directed against members of the group.

Front 12

How can we reduce the prejudicial feelings that come from stereotypes?

Back 12

repeated exposure to individuals in the stereotyped group.

Front 13

When people assign causes to behaviors, psychologists refer to these inferences as ________; these theories are concerned primarily with the
psychological processes that underlie these inferences of cause and effect.

Back 13

attributions

Front 14

According to the ___________________, the first thing you'll look for is some factor that happens at the same time as, or covaries with, the behavior change.

Back 14

Covariation model of attribution

Front 15

What three pieces of information does the covariation model rely on and what do each do?

Back 15

consistency - try and determine whether the change occurs regularly when the causal event is present.
Distinctiveness - provides and indication of whether the change occurs uniquely in the presence of the event.
Consensus - Tells us whether other people show similar reactions when they're exposed to the same causal event.

Front 16

When someone appeals to external causes, when the behavior is high in consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus this is known as ________________.

Back 16

External attribution

Front 17

when someone uses _________________ that means they attributed to his pleasant behavior to some internal personality trait or disposition.

Back 17

Internal attribution

Front 18

Internal attributions are common when the consistency of a behavior is ______ but its distinctiveness and consensus are ______.

Back 18

high, low

Front 19

When we seek to interpret someone else's behavior, we tend to overestimate the influence of internal personal factors and underestimate the role of external situational factors. This is know as what?

Back 19

Fundamental attribution error`

Front 20

Attributions which focus on the situation, don't usually enter our minds because why?

Back 20

our first tendency is to attribute behavior to a personal characteristic.

Front 21

The overall tendency to attribute our own behavior to external sources but to attribute the behavior of others to internal sources is what?

Back 21

actor-observer effect.

Front 22

What is it called when one takes internal credit for our actions when those actions produce positive outcomes? and why is this adaptive?

Back 22

self-serving bias
its adaptive because it allows us to bolster and maintain our self-esteem and project self-importance.

Front 23

_______ is simply a positive or negative evaluation or belief held about something, which in turn may affect behavior. They help us remain consistent in our actions and use our knowledge about individuals or situations.

Back 23

attitudes

Front 24

Social psychologists divide attitudes into three components, what are they and what do each of them do?

Back 24

Cognitive Component - represents what people know or believe about the object of their attitude.
Affective component - represents what people know or believe about the object of their attitude, made up of the feelings the object produces.
Behavioral Component - a predisposition to act toward the object in a particular way.

Front 25

why don't attitudes always directly affect behavior?

Back 25

People sometimes act in ways that are inconsistent with their attitudes, in some situations its unwise to express your true feelings.

Front 26

Events that occur outside of our control can acquire signaling properties, through ________ _______, and then serve as an initial foundation for an attitude.

Back 26

Classical Conditioning

Front 27

Through _______ _________, attitudes are influence by the rewards and punishments we receive for our actions. It teaches us about the consequences of our behavior.

Back 27

Operant Conditioning

Front 28

Much of what we acquire from experience is the result of _______ ________.

Back 28

Observational Learning

Front 29

"He told me to do it.""Everybody else did it too!""Nobody else did anything either." These are comments likely to be heard when explaining behavior in situations like Milgram’s experiment, riots, and the Kitty Genovese case. Each comment illustrates the importance of ________________________.

Back 29

Diffusion of Responsibility

Front 30

An evolutionary approach to attractiveness would suggest people are attracted to people who are _______ and ________ looking.

Back 30

youthful and healthy looking

Front 31

Based on research on first impressions, when Ed first sees a very attractive person he will assume the person is what?

Back 31

better adjusted than people with an average appearance.

Front 32

Bem's self-perception theory has been used to explain the ________________ technique.

Back 32

Foot-in-door technique

Front 33

Ben realized that every time he had an open elective, he took a psychology class. Based on his observation, Ben has decided he must like psychology. Ben’s attitude is best explained by _____________________ theory.

Back 33

Self-perception theory

Front 34

Brad believes students of Asian heritage are excellent students and especially good at math and science. Brad's belief is an example of a _______.

Back 34

stereotype

Front 35

Don is normally a hard worker, but when 50 people showed up to clean the ballpark, Don watched more than he worked. Don's behavior is most similar to _________________.

Back 35

social loafing

Front 36

Election commercials that attempt to persuade viewers by listing the candidate's views and accomplishments are using a _______________ strategy.

Back 36

central route strategy

Front 37

If Anne makes the ____________________, she will explain her favorite politician's loss in the election by saying, "He just didn't have the campaign skills necessary to get his ideas across."

Back 37

Fundamental Attribution Error

Front 38

Ben realized that every time he had an open elective, he took a psychology class. Based on his observation, Ben has decided he must like psychology. Ben’s attitude is best explained by the ______________.

Back 38

Peripheral route

Front 39

In the large Mardi Gras crowd, Jill felt anonymous and depersonalized, and she did some things very uncharacteristic of her normal behavior. Jill seems to have experienced _____________.

Back 39

Deindividuation

Front 40

Kim complained to Flo, “You mostly make internal attributions concerning my behavior, but you make external attributions about your behavior.” If Kim’s accusation is true, Flow’s behavior illustrates the _____________________.

Back 40

Actor-Observer Effect

Front 41

Members of the Residence Hall Council initially felt that some minor restrictions were needed in the visitation policies. After a very lengthy, well-balanced, and thorough discussion, they produced a very extreme proposal restricting visitation to 1:00-7:00 pm. Their shift to a more extreme view illustrates ________________.

Back 41

Group Polarization

Front 42

Mira’s recital performance was marred by several squeaks and honks. Before deciding why Mira’s performance was poor, you considered whether she usually honks and squeaks in other situations. Your decision emphasized ____________.

Back 42

Distinctiveness

Front 43

Research has found that people tended to rate as most attractive pictures of people created by doing what?

Back 43

averaging photos of many other people

Front 44

Research on __________ has shown that Milgram's basic results can be replicated in many countries.

Back 44

obedience

Front 45

The head of marketing often claimed, "Say it often enough, and people will start to believe it." This suggests she believes attitudes are influenced by ________________.

Back 45

mere exposure

Front 46

Newborns prefer faces rated as __________ by adults.

Back 46

attractive

Front 47

An emphasis on _______________ is more typical in non-Western cultures.

Back 47

Shared Characteristics

Front 48

Birds of a feather flock together is best supported by research on ____________.

Back 48

friendships

Front 49

John acts nervous when he talks with his psychology professor. If many other students also act nervous in that situation, the covariation model would describe the behavior as _____ in _________.

Back 49

high in consensus

Front 50

According to Kelly's covariation model, internal attributions are most likely when there is ______ consistency, _____ consensus, and ____ distinctiveness.

Back 50

high, low, low

Front 51

Election commercials that attempt to persuade viewers by listing the candidate's views and accomplishments are using a _______________ strategy.

Back 51

central route strategy

Front 52

According to your text, negative evaluations of a group and its members defines _______.

Back 52

prejudice

Front 53

Cognitive dissonance occurs when what?

Back 53

a person's behavior is not consistent with his or her attitude.

Front 54

Abe had made 100% of his free throws when alone in the gym, but when the coaches showed up, he missed four in a row. This is an example of __________ _______.

Back 54

Social interference

Front 55

When a student gets up and leaves during the middle of his lecture, Dr. Marsh is more likely to think, "That student is a rude fool" than “That student must be ill.” This illustrates the ___________________.

Back 55

fundamental attribution error.

Front 56

When the quarterback threw a game-winning pass, he attributed his success to his great skill. When he threw a disastrous interception, he attributed his failure to a gust of wind. This pattern represents the _____________.

Back 56

self-serving bias

Front 57

Although at least 20 people saw Tyrone’s serious fall, several minutes passed before anybody came over to help. This lack of action can best be explained in terms of __________________.

Back 57

Diffusion of responsibility

Front 58

April knows she is 20 lbs too heavy to look good in low-rider jeans, but because everybody else is wearing them, so does she. April’s behavior reflects ___________.

Back 58

Conformity

Front 59

In the aftermath of the World Trade Center attack, many people immediately stopped to help strangers who were injured. This behavior represents __________.

Back 59

Altruism

Front 60

Some critics have suggested that President Bush’s staff were more concerned with getting a consensus on the issue of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq than listening to dissenting opinions. If true, this situation is an example of _______________.

Back 60

groupthink

Front 61

Mike and Carol share an incredibly strong need to be with each other and strong emotional arousal when together. Their relationship is an example of _____________.

Back 61

Passionate Love

Front 62

Coach Bob has heard that Tim is not a very good baseball player. As a result, he gives Tim little time or attention in practice and little playing time in games. Sure enough, Tim was the worst player at the end of the season. This is best explained in terms of a ____________________.

Back 62

a self-fulfilling prophecy effect

Front 63

Kit, a volunteer, and Tom, a highly paid staff member, work on Candidate Smith’s campaign. Although Candidate Smith recently admitted he has a criminal conviction, both Kit and Tom have continued to work for him. According to cognitive dissonance theory, how are Kit’s and Tom’s attitudes about Candidate Smith likely to have changed since the news about his criminal record?

Back 63

Both Kit’s and Tom’s attitudes became less favorable, but Tom’s changed more.

Front 64

Sid is an Indianapolis Pacers basketball fan. He knows the team’s win-loss record and the achievements of the individual players. He buys season tickets every year and gets angry if anyone says they aren’t the best. The behavioral component of Sid’s attitude is what?

Back 64

buying season tickets every year

Front 65

Dozens of cars passed by before Jack got help when stranded on a busy road. Mike got help from the first person to pass by when he had car trouble on an almost deserted road. The difference in helping behavior they encountered is most consistent with the ________________.

Back 65

Bystander effect

Front 66

Charities emphasize getting any kind of donation at first, no matter how small. They know that having complied with a small request makes a person much more likely to comply with a large request later. This represents the ____________________.

Back 66

foot-in-the-door technique

Front 67

Georgia just met a woman who is like a twin sister. She likes the same things Georgia likes, she looks a little like Georgia, and she often starts to say the same thing as Georgia. Based on the research on interpersonal relationships, Georgia will probably do what?

Back 67

very quickly become lasting friends with this person

Front 68

If feelings of closeness, connectedness, and warmth characterize a relationship, Sternberg would say the relationship is high in ________.

Back 68

Intimacy

Front 69

According to the ________________, there are two primary routes to persuasion. What are they?

Back 69

elaboration likelihood model
central route and peripheral route

Front 70

The _________ route to persuasion is the most obvious and
familiar one. IT operates when we're motivated and inclined to process and incoming persuasive communication with care and attention

Back 70

Central route

Front 71

The _______ roue to persuasion operate when we're either unable to process the message carefully or are unmotivated to do so. Our attitudes are much more susceptible to change from superficial cues or from mere exposure.

Back 71

Peripheral route

Front 72

When our motivation to process the message is low, we're much more likely to be persuaded by _______________ which are things such as celebrities, attractiveness, or power.

Back 72

source characteristics.

Front 73

What is the theory of cognitive dissonance?

Back 73

Tension that is produced when people act in a way that is inconsistent with their attitude.

Front 74

According to cognitive dissonance theory, if the discrepancy between what you believe and how you act is great, you will do what two things?

Back 74

Change your behavior or change your beliefs.

Front 75

the idea that we are active observers of our own behavior and we learn from our behavior and use our actions as a basis for inferring internal beliefs is called what?

Back 75

The self-perception theory

Front 76

the _____ technique is getting you to verbally agree to the initial purchase, the sales person lowered your resistance to buying the product.

Back 76

lowball technique.

Front 77

___________ is the study of how the behaviors and thoughts of individuals are affected by the presence of others.

Back 77

social influence

Front 78

The enhancement in performance that is sometimes found when we perform in the presence of others is known as ________________.

Back 78

social facilitation

Front 79

Performing in a crowd when it impairs performance is called what?

Back 79

social interference

Front 80

Acting in a way that shows unselfish concern for the welfare of others is called what?

Back 80

Altruism

Front 81

________________ altruism, means that there's a greater chance we'll help relatives, but we'll help strangers under some circumstances.

Back 81

kin-directed altruism

Front 82

When we act altruistically because we anticipate that the favor will be returned is a concept known as what?

Back 82

reciprocal altruism

Front 83

the reluctance to come to the aid of a person in need when other people are present is known as what?

Back 83

bystander effect

Front 84

We tend not to lend a hand, or get involved, because the presence of others leads to ________________ - we believe others have already done something to help or well soon get involved.

Back 84

Diffusion of responsibility

Front 85

When participating as a member of a group, most people show a strong tendency to engage in _________, which means they put out less effort than when they are alone.

Back 85

social loafing

Front 86

The idea that we feel less accountable for our behavior when we're in a group setting can lead to a phenomenon called ___________.

Back 86

deindividuation

Front 87

_______ occurs when a person's opinions, feelings, and behaviors start to move toward the group norm.

Back 87

conformity

Front 88

Conformity is particularly likely when pressure comes from an _________ - that is a group of individuals with who you share features in common or with whom you identify.

Back 88

ingroup

Front 89

Why do we conform to the majority opinion? 2 reasons,

Back 89

One - we generally seek approbal in social settings and try to avoid rejection.
May also be the case that we use the majority group opinion as a source of information

Front 90

_________________ means that the group's dominant point of view - which is usually determined by the initial views of the majority - becomes stronger and even more extreme with time.

Back 90

Group Polarization

Front 91

When member of a group become so interested in seeking a consensus of opinion that they start to ignore and even suppress dissenting views is called what?

Back 91

Groupthink

Front 92

The result of group think is general __________ and an overestimation of the _________ of opinion.

Back 92

closed-mindedness
uniformity

Front 93

Psychologists use the term _________ to describe the form of compliance that occurs when people respond to the orders of an authority figure.

Back 93

obedience

Front 94

In Milgram's experiment he found that ____% of the 40 people who participated were willing to deliver shocks up to 450 volts, and no one quit before the pounding on the wall started. This means that ____ out of 40 participants went all the way to the final switch.

Back 94

65%
26 out of 40

Front 95

Milgram's experiment was controversial for what two main reasons?

Back 95

The manner in which it was conducted raised serious ethical questions because the people were misled from the beginning and become severely distressed during their participation.
Some critics argued that perhaps the participants had seen through the cover and were simply trying to please the experimenter.

Front 96

In places such as the United States, people are taught from a very young age to adopt an __________ view of self.

Back 96

independent

Front 97

In many non-Western cultures, people adopt a very different ______ view of self.

Back 97

interdependent

Front 98

If the purpose of attraction is to snare an ideal mate, then preferably it should be someone with what?

Back 98

a high reproductive capactiy or someone who is able to provide protection of his or her children and compete successfully for need resources.

Front 99

Some research suggests that universality of attractiveness may be partly due to the fact that people are programmed to prefer faces that are what?

Back 99

average representations of faces in a population.

Front 100

Why would people prefer faces that are prototypical?

Back 100

Prototypical faces are easy to identify and classify as human faces.
People are programmed biologically to prefer prototypical faced because individuals with average features may be less likely to harbor potentially harmful genetic mutations.