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212 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
deductive reasoning
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summarize the info at hand and draw conclusions from that information, proceeds from the general to the specific
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inductive reasoning
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drawing a generalization from several specific observations, proceeds from specific to general. it is IMPOSSIBLE to prove the accuracy of generalization
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the recursive nature
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experiments provide more observations, and at any time more observations may be added in and more testable models may be produced
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theory
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linnks together significant bodies of thought
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principle or law
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when a theory yields unvarying adn uniform predictions over a long period of time
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the goal of science is to
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understand nature
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the goal of technology is to
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apply scientific knowledge
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cell
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the basic structure adn functional unit of life consisting of living material bounded by a membrane. It is the smallest unit of life capable of growth and development
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growth
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increase in size and number
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development
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changes in roles of cells during the life cycle of an organism
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metabolism
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includes the chemical process essential to growth and repair. It is the sum of the chemical rxns adn energy transformations
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homeostasis
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the tendency of an organism to maintain a relatively constant interna or external environment. (Metabolism needs this).
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asexual reproduction
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copying; reprduction not involving sex, resulting from only cell division
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sexual reproduction
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reproduction involving sex, typically involves the formation of specialized egg and sperm cells and their fusion to produce a zygote which grows and develops into a new organism
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DNA
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responsible for information transfer from one generation to the next. Makes up genes.
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hormones
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chemical signals used for intercellular signaling
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what type of system do biologists use?
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binomial system for classifying organisms
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taxonomy
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the science of classifying adn naming of organisms
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Carolus Linnaeus
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swedish botanist who developed a system of classification that is the basis of what is used today
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species
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basic unit of classification.
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if species sexual
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can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
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if species asexual
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group based on similarities (DNA sequence based)
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Genus
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a gorup of closely related species
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binomial name
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made of genus and specific epithet. Genus is capitalized. ex. Homo sapiens
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order of taxonomic classification
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Dashing King Phillup Came Over For Great Sex
Family, Order, Class, Phylum, Kingdom, Domain |
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domain
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the highest level of classification
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two domains of consist of prokaryotes
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archaea and bacteria
no true cellular nucleus |
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archaea
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Kingdom Archaebacteria, typically found in extreme environments, distinguished by RNA
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Bacteria
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Kingdom Eubacteria, very diverse group of bacteria
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domain Eukarya
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consists of eukaryotes, organisms with a discrete cellular nucleus, it is divided into 4 kingdoms
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Kingdom Protista
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(domain eukarya) sinlge celled adn simple multicellular organisms having nuclei
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Kingdom Plantae
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(domain eukarya)plants are complex multicellular organisms having tissues and organs. Have cells walls containing cellulose. Have chlorophyll.
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Kingdom Fungi
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(domain eukarya)have cell walls containing chitin. most decomposers.
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Kingdom Animalia
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complex multicellular organisms that eat other organisms for nourishment. NO CELL WALLS. most forms of motile.
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producers
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autotrophs, manufacture their own food from simple materials
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photosynthesis
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CO2 + H2O + light energy = carbohydrate(food) + Oxygen
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respiration
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carbohydrate + oxygen = CO2 +H2O + energy
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consumers
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heterotrophs, obtain energy by eating other organisms (ultimate source of energy is producers) use food and oxygen and release CO2 and water
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decomposers
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obtain energy by breaking down the water products, and dead bodies of producers and consumers. Usually bacteria or fungi.
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evolution
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the core unifying theme thst explains much of the observations connected with the other themes
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elements
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substances that cannot be further broken down. 92 naturally occuring elements
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4 elements that make 96% of the mass of living things
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O H C N
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8 other elements present in small amounts
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Ca, P, K, S, Na, Mg, Cl, Fe
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atom
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smallest unit of an element that still retains the properties of that element
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electron
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contributes no significant mass to the atom, but carries a (-1) electrical charge
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proton
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contributes a mass of 1 mass unit, carries a (+1) charge
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neutron
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contributes a mass of 1 mass unit, carries no charge
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protons and neutrons are found in the
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nucleus
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elements differ from
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different number of protons
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atomic number
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protons + nucleus
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isotopes
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atoms that have the same number of protons but have different number of neutrons
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atomic nuclei can undergo
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change/decay
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most unstable isotopes are
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radioisotopes
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when an atom is neutral
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electrons = protons
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orbitals
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energy levels
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valence electrons
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the outer electrons
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chemical properties of an atom are determined by
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valence electrons
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molecule
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two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds, may be composed of one or more elements. molecule differs in its physical and chemical properties from the elements that make it up
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compound
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a specific combination of two or more DIFFERENT elements chemically combined in a fixed ration. have unique physical and chemical properties that differ from those of the elements use to make it. some held by covalent bonds - making it molecular
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chemical formula
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showing the number of atoms of each element present. often called molecular formula.
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structural formula
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shows the arrangement of atoms in a molecule
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molecular mass
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the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms in the molecule
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a chemical bond is a
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reduced energy state
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bond energy
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is the amount of energy required to break a particular chemical bond
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covalent bond
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electrons shared b/w two atoms. result in filled valence shells, electrons are shared in pairs, carbon forms 4 covalent bonds
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ionic bond
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one atom completely gives up an electron to another atom. formed by the attraction b/w cation and anion
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nonpolar
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equal sharing of electrons
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polar
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unequal sharing of electrons. result if one nuclues holds a stronger attraction on the electron pair. partial charge
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ion
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an atom gains or gives one or more electrons
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cation
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lost one or more electrons, has a positive charge
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anion
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gains one or more electrons, has a negative charge. suffix -ide indicates an anion
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polyatomic ions
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only they can lose or gain PROTONS
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hydration
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surrounding the ions with the ends water molecules w/ the opposite charge
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hydrogen bonds
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weak interactions involving partially charged hydrogen atoms, more common and important in living things. very weak compared to cov. bonds.
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strength of covalent, hydrogen, and ionic bonds
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covalent bond stronger than ionic, and ionic stronger than hydrogen, hydrogen is the weakest
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double arrow in an equation indicates
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equilibrium
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oxidation
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a chemical process in which an atom, molecule, or ion LOSES an electron(s). oxygen is most common oxidizing agent
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reduction
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an elecctron is GAINED (charge is reduced)
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oxidation and reduction are always
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paired, hence redox reactions
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look for movement of what in redox reactions
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electrons
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what percentage of cells is made of water?
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70%
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about what percentage of the earrth's surface is covered in water?
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75%
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electronegative
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electron seeking, oxygen atoms are electronegative
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the polar character of water allows it to form what type of bonds?
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hydrogen
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four properties of water that are critical to life
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1. it is the principle solvent
2. exhibits both cohesive and adhesive forces 3. helps maintain stable temp 4. ice floats in liquid water |
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water makes a good solvent because?
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of its highly polar character
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hydrophilic substances
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interact readily with water
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water does not readily dissolve. . .
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nonpolar(hydrophobic) substances, thus, hydrophobic substances are good compounds for membranes
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cohesive forces
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are caused by the attraction of water molecules to other water molecules, and give water a high surface tension
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surface tension
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the ability of a water surface to withstand some stress
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adhesive forces
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cause water molecules to be attracted to other kinds of molecules, it is how things are made wet
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capillary action
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the tendency of water to move up narrow tubes even against gravity, results from cohesion and adhesion, living organisms take advantage of this
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specific heat
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the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a specific amount of a substance one degree celsius. (for water, 1g og water to raise by one degree of celsius
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the specific heat of water is. . .
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much higher than most other substances, due to hydrogen bonding. It cools down slowly b/c of the formation of hydrogen bonds
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in order to change temp of water. . .
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requires gain or loss of more energy than it does other substances
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what helps cool the ecosphere?
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the high heat of vaporization
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heat vaporization
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the amount of energy required to convert one gram of liquid into the gaseous state
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water has an extremely high vaporization b/c?
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of the hydrogen bonds in liquid water
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calorie
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the amount of heat(energy) required to cause the temperature of one gram of pure water to rise one degree celsius
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how many calories does it take to convert 1g of liquid water into water vapor
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540 calories
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as liquid water cools, it becomes?
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denser, but only up to a point
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at 4 degrees celsius
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water begins to expand as it cools further
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zero degrees celsius
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ice freezes into a crystal based on the placement of hydrogen bonds
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acids
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proton donors. a substance that dissociates in solution to yield hydrogen ions (H+)
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any substance that yields a proton is a?
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acid
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base
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proton acceptors, eaither dissociate in water to produce hydroxide ions and a cation, or split water to form a cation and hydroxide ion
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water tends to slightly dissociate into?
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hydrogen adn hydroxide ions (H+ and OH-)
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in pure water, the concentrations of these ions are?
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equal
H+ = OH- = 10^-7 ten more times = 10^-6 |
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acidic solutions
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have an elevated H+, and thus reduced OH-
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basic solutions
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have an elevated OH-, and thus reduced H+
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pH scale
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to express the proton concentration of a solution
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pure water has a pH of?
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7
so ten times more = 10^6 or pH 6 ten times less = 10^8 or pH 8 |
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a pH below 7 is
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acidic
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a pH above 7 is
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basic
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the pH of most living things is?
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7.2 to 7.4
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buffers
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minimize pH changes
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weak acids and weak bases serve as?
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buffers
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solvent
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a liquid into which a substance dissolves
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solute
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the dissolved substance
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solution
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solvent + solute
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salts
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form from acids adn bases
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electrolytes
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are salts, acids, or bases that form ions in water and thus can conduct an electrical current when dissolved in water. (pure water is poor conductor, but put salt in and it is)
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nonelectrolytes
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are substances like sugar that dissolve in water do not become ionic
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mixture
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a mixture of 2 or more elements and/or more elements and/or compounds
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heterogenous
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mixtures that are not uniform composition throughout - a living organism is a good ex.
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homogeneous
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mixtures that are completely uniform thorughout, a salt water is a good ex.
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organic chemistry
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have at least one carbon covalently bonded to another carbon atom or to hydrogen, the chemistry of organic molecules is organized around the carbon atom
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single carbon cardon bonds allow?
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rotation around them and lend to flexibility to molecules
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the shape of a molecule is important in determining?
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its chemical and biological properties
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isomers
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molecules that have same molecular formula but different structures
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stereoisomers
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substances with the same arrangement of covalent bonds, but the order in which the atoms are arranged in space is different
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structual isomers
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substances w/ the same molecular formula that differ in the covalent arrangement of their atoms
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two kinds of stereo isomers
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cis-trans isomers - associated w/ compounds that have carbon carbon double bonds
enantiomers - substances that mirror images of each other and that cannot be superimposed on each other |
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functional groups
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groups of atoms covalently bonded to a carbon backbone that give properties different from a C-H bond
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hydroxly group
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OH
polar, found in alcohols, interacts w/ water |
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carbonyl group
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CO
polar, found in aldehydes and ketones, interacts w/ water |
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carboxyl group
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CO HO
weally acidic, found in organic acids, iteracts w/ water |
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amino group
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NH2
weakly basic, found in such things as amino acids, interacts w/ water |
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sulfhydryl group
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SH
essentiallu nonpolar, found in some amino acids, does not interact w/ water |
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phosphate group
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PO4H2
weakly acidic, found in such things as phospholipids and nucleic acids. interacts w/ water |
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methyl group
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CH - chomp down on meth
nonpolar(thus hydrphobic), found in such things as lipids, other membrane components |
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polymers
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are long chains or branching chains based on repeating subunits (monomers)
ex. proteins(polymer) made from amino acids (monomer) |
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macromolecules
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very large polymers
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polymers are degraded into monomers by?
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hydrolysis
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condensation
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monomers are covalently linked to form polymers
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the four major classes of biologically important organic molecules are
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carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
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carbohydrates
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include sugars, starches, and cellulose. contain only 3 elements - C, H, O = CH20
created for energy storage and consumed for energy production |
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carbohydrates are grouped into?
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monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
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monosaccharides
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simple sugars(a single monomer).
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pentose
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include ribose and deoxyribose
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hexoses
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include GLUCOSE, fructose, and galactose
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pentose and hexose sugars form what kind of structure?
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ring structures in solution -this often creates diastereomers
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disaccharides
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consist of two monosaccharide
units. formed when the equivalent of a water molecule is removed from the 2 monosaccharides |
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two monomers are joined by a
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glycosidic linkage
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common disaccharides
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maltose, sucrose, lactose
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maltose
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(malt sugar)has 2 glucose subunits
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sucrose
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(table sugar) glucose + fructose
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lactose
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(milk sugar) glucose + galactose
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polysaccharides
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marcomolecule made of repeating monosaccharides units linked together by glycosidic bonds
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starch
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the main storage carbohydrate of plants. polyer made from alpha-glucose units
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amylose
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unbranched starch chain
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amylopectin
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branched starch chain. plants store starch in organelles called amyloplasts
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glycogen
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the main storage carbohydrate for animals. highly branched and more water-soluble. mostly found in liver and muscle cells, NOT found in organelle
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cellulose
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the major structural componet of most plant cell walls. polymer made from beta-glucose.
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most organisms cannot digest?
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cellulose
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cellulose contains what percentage of the carbon found in plants
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50%
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chitin
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structural component in fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons
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lipids
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fata and fat like substances. are a heterogeneous group of compounds defined by solubility NOT structure.
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lipids are principally
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hydrophobic
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lipids consist of
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carbon and hydrogen
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roles of lipids are
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serving membrane as structural components, signaling molecules, and as energy storage
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major classes of lipids are?
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triacyglycerols(fats), phopholipids, and terpenes
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triaclyglycerols
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contain glycerol joined to three fatty acids
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saturated fatty acids contain
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no carbon-carbon double bonds
usually solid at room temp |
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unsaturated fatty acids contain
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one or more double bonds
usually liquid at room temp |
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monosaturated
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one double bond
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polysaturated
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more than one double bond
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condensation results in
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ester linkage b/w a fatty acid and the glycerol
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phospholipids
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consist of diacylglycerol molecule, a phosphate group esterfied to the 3rd OH group of glycerol, and an organic molecule esterfied to the phophate
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phospholipids are
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amphipathic, they have a nonpolar end(tail -hydrophobic)) and a polar end(head)
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terpenes
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long chained lipids built from 5-carbon isoprene units
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steroids
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are terpene derivatives that contain four rings of carbon atoms
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proteins
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macromolecues that are polymers formed from amino acids. have structural diversity.
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roles of proteins
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enzyme catalysis, defense, transport, structure/support, motion, regulation
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proteins are made from amino acids and amino acids are linked by?
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peptide bonds
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amino acids
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consist of a central or aloha carbon, bound to that carbon is a hydrogen atom
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the R group of an amino acid determines?
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the identity and much of the chemical properties of the amino acid
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plants and bacteria usually make their own?
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amino acids
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peptide bond
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joins the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of another, is formed by a condensation reaction
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dipeptide
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two amino acids fastened together by a peptide bond
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what determines the structure of a protein?
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the sequence of amino acids
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proteins have 4 levels of organization
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primary structure (1 degree)
secondary structure(2 degree) tertiary structure(3 degree) quaternary structure(4 degree) |
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primary structure of a protein
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the sequence of amino acids in the peptide chain
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secondary structure of a protein
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results from hydrogen bonds involving the backbone, where the peptide chains is hld in structures, either a coiled aloha-helix or folded pleated sheet
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quaternary structure of a protein
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results from interactions between two or more seperate polypeptide chains. it is the 3-dimensional structure(the protein conformation)
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protein conformation
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the final three dimensional structure. this determines the function
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enzymes
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biological substances that regulate the rates of the chemical reactions in living organisms, most are proteins
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nucleic acids
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transmit hereditary info by determining what proteins a cell makes. are polymers made of nucleotide monomers
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two classes of nucleic acids
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DNA and RNA
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DNA
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carries the genetic info cells use to make proteins
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RNA
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functions in protein synthesis according to mechanisms
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a nucleotide consists of
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a 5-carbon sugar(ribose or deoxyribose), one or more phosphate groups, and a nitrogen base
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purines
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double-ringed nitrogen bases
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pyrimidines
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single-ringed nitrogen bases
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DNA typically contains the purines. . .
and the pyrimidines |
adenine(A) and guanine(G)
cytosine(C) and thymine(T) A-T C-G |
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RNA typically contains the purines. . .
and the pyrimidines |
adenine(A) and guanine(G)
cytosine(C) and uracil(U) |
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nucleotides are fastened together by
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phosphodiester bonds
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DNA's structure is
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double helix, it is the hydrogen bonds hold strands together
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the two stralnds of DNA are
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antiparellel
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adenosine triphosphate(ATP)
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an important energy carrying compound in metabolism
|
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cyclic adenosine monophosphate(cAMP)
|
is a hormone intermediary compound
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nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide(NAD+)
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an electron carrier which is oxidized or reduced in many metabolic reactions
|