Ch. 7 Psychology

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is our awareness of ourselves and our environment

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consciousness

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periodic physiological fluctuations, which includes annual cycles, twenty eight day cycles, twenty four hour cycles, ninety minute cycles

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biological rythms

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the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms for example; temperature and wakefulness that occur on a 24 hour cycle

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circadian rhythm

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rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur, also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed but other systems are active

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REM sleep

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the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

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alpha waves

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periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness-as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

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sleep

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false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus, sense of falling or floating

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hallucinations

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the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

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delta waves

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recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

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insomnia

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a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often in inopportune times

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narcolepsy

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a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

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sleep apnea

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a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an apperance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors cocur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

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night terrors

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"hallucinations of the sleeping mind" they are vivid, emotional, and bizarre.

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dream

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according to sigmund freud the remembered story lne of a dream

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manifest content

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according to freud a dreams manifest, or apparent, content is a censored, symbolic version of its ?, which consists of unconscious drives and wishes that would be threatening if expressed directly

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latent content

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the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

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REM rebound

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a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

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hypnosis

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a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

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posthypnotic suggestion

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a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and begaviors to occur simultaneously with others

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dissociation

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a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood

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psychoactive drug

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the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

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tolerance

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the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

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withdrawal

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a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasnat withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

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physical dependence

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a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

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psychological dependence

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complusive drug craving and use

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addiction

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drugs such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

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depressants

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drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

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barbiturates

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opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and herioin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

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opiates

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drugs(such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and exstasy that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

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stimulants

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drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body gunctions and associated energy and mood changes

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amphetamines

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a powerfully addicative drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

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methamphetamine

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an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similar to drug induced hallucinations

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near-death experience

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the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

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dualism

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the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing

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monism

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a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

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developmental psychology

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the fertilized egg; it enters a two week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

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zygote

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the developing human organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the second month

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embryo

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the developing human organism from nine weeks after conception to birth

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fetus

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agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryyo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

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teratogens

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physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

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fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

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a baby's tendancy, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

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rooting reflex

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decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

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habituation

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biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

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maturation

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a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

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schema

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interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas

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assimilation

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adapting one's current understandings to incorporate new information

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accommodation

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all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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cognition

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in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about two years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

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sensorimotor stage

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the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

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object permanence

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the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

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conservation

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in Piaget's theory, the preoperational chld's difficulty taking another's pont of view

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egocentrism

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people's ideas about their own and others' mental states-about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behvior these might predict

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theory of mind

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a disorder that appears in child-hood and is marded by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others states of mind

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autism

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in Piaget's theory, the stage form about two to six or seven years of age during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mantal operatins of concret logic

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preoperational stage

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in Piaget's theory, thae stage of cognitive development during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

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concrete operational stage

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in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

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formal operational stage

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the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about eight months of age

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stranger anxiety

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an emotinal tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

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attachment

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an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

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critical period

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the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

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imprinting

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according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

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basic trust

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a sense of one's identity and personal worth

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self-concept

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the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

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adolescence

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the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

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puberty

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the body structures that make sexual reproduction possible

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primary sex characterisitcs

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nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as fremale breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

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secondary sex characteristics

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the first menstrual period

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menarche

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one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidigy a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

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identity

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in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary develpmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

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intimacy

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the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

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menopause

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a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and , finally, physical functioning

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alzheimer's disease

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a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

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cross-sectional study

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research in which the same prople are restudied and retested over a long period

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longitudinal study

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one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

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crystallized intelligence

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one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

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fluid intelligence

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the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

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social clock

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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

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learning

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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequences

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associative learning

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a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.

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classical conditioning

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the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not with 2

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behaviorism

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in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus(US) such as salivation when food is in the mouth

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unconditioned response (UR)

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditinally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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in classical conditioning the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (CS)

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conditioned response (CR)

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in classsical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditoned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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the intial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associting a neurtral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the stregthening of a reinforced response

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acquisition

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the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditined stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditiong when a response is no longer reinforced

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extinction

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the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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spontaneous recovery

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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditined stimulus to elicit similar responses

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generalization

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in classical conditioning the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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discrimination

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a type of learning in which behavior is strenghtened if followed by a reinforcer of diminished if followed by a punisher

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operant conditioning

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behavior that occus as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behvior learned through classical conditioning

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respondent behavior

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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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operant behavior

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consenquences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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law of effect

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a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an anumal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research

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operant chamber

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an operant conditiong procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired begavior

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shaping

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in operant conditioning, any event that strenghtens the behavior it follows

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reinforcer

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increasing begaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A psotive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

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positive reinforcement

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increasing begaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a reponse, streghtens the response

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negative reinforcement

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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that stisfies a biological need.

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primary reinforcer

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a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association witha primary reinforcer; also known as the secondary reinforcer

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conditioned reinforcer

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisiton of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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partial(intermittent) reinforcement

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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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continuous reinforcement

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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fixed-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of respoonses

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variable-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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fixed-interval schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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variable-interval schedule

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an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

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punishment

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a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive mop of it

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cognitive map

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learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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latent learning

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a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

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intrinsic motivation

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a desire to perform a begavior due to promised rewards of threats of punishment

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extrinsic motivation

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learning by observing others

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observational learning

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the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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modeling

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frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathey

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mirror neurons

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positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior

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prosocial behavior

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the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

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memory

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a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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flashbulb memory

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the processing of information into the memory system-for example by extracting meaning

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encoding

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the retention of encoded information over time

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storage

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the process of getting information out of memory stage

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retrieval

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the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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sensory memory

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activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

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short-term memory

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the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

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long-term memory

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a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming audityory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

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working memory

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unconscious ncoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well learned information, such as word meanings

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automatic processing

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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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effortful processing

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the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to ecncode it for storage

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rehearsal

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the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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spacing effect

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out tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

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serial position effect

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the encoding of picture images

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visual encoding

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the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

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acoustic encoding

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the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

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semantic encoding

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mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

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imagery

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memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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mnemonics

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organizing items to familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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chunking

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a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photgraphic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few thenths of a second

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iconic memory

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a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within three or four seconds

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echoic memory

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an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

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long-term potentiation (LTP)

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the loss of memory

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amnesia

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retention independent of conscious recollection.Also called procedural memory

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implicit memory

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memory of facts and eperiences that one can consciously know and declare. Also called declarative memory

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explicit memory

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a neural center that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage

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hippocampus

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a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

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recall

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the measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test

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recognition

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a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

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relearning

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the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. Ask a friend two rapid fire questions; if your friend answers stop to the second questio, you have demonstrated priming

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priming

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that eerie sense that i've experienced this before. bues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

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deja vu

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the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

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mood-congruent memory

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the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

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proactive interference

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the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

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retroactive interference

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in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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repression

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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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misinformation effect

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attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. also call source misattrbution. sourc amnesia,along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

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source amnesia