Ch 29

Front 1

All plants are composed of cells having _____.

Back 1

Plastids

Front 2

The plant kingdom evolved from...

Back 2

green algal ancestors

Front 3

Streptophytes

Back 3

plants and modern green algal relatives, collectively

Front 4

3 shared features of streptophytes

Back 4

-a distinctive type of cytokinesis

-intercellular connections known as plasmodesmata

-sexual reproduction

Front 5

What type of other green algae is related to the streptophytes?

Back 5

chlorophytes

Front 6

Why are three-dimensional tissues important for land plants?

Back 6

the tissue provides land plants with the ability to avoid water loss in their cells

Front 7

Apical Meristems

Back 7

localized regions of cell division where land plant tissues are derived

Front 8

How did land plant tissues arise?

Back 8

from one or more actively dividing cells that occur at growing tips

Front 9

How are land plants able to withstand drought and mechanical stress?

Back 9

tissue producing apical meristems produce thick, robust bodies able to withstand these conditions, and also produce tissues and organs with specialized functions

Front 10

Nine phyla of modern land plants:

(in the order they arose in)

Back 10

1) Hepatophyta (liverworts)

2) Bryophyta (mosses)

3) Anthocerophyta (hornworts)

4) Lycopodiophyta (lycophytes)

5) Pteridophyta (pteridophytes)

6) Cycadophyta (cycads)

7) Ginkgophyta (ginkgos)

8) Coniferophyta (conifers)

9) Anthophyta (angiosperms)

Front 11

True or false:

Other plant phyla lived once but are now extinct

Back 11

True

Front 12

Collectively, _______, ______, and ______ are informally known as the bryophytes.

Back 12

liverworts, mosses and hornworts

Front 13

There are about ________ species of liverworts

Back 13

6,500

Front 14

There are about ________ species of mosses

Back 14

12,000

Front 15

There are about ________ species of hornworts

Back 15

100

Front 16

2 common features of bryophytes:

Back 16

-relatively small in stature

-most common and diverse in moist habitats

Front 17

Streptophytes have what kind of life cycle?

Back 17

zygotic life cycle

(diploid generation consists of only one cell, the zygote)

Front 18

Sporic Life cycles (alternation of generations) produce what two types of multicellular bodies?

Back 18

sporophytes

gametophytes

Front 19

What do sporophytes produce?

Are they haploid or diploid?

Back 19

-produce spores

-diploid (2n)

Front 20

What do gametophytes produce?

Are they haploid or diploid?

Back 20

-produce gametes

-haploid (n)

Front 21

How do biologists think the plant life cycle originated?

Back 21

by a delay in zygotic meiosis, with the result that the diploid generation became multicellular before undergoing meiosis.

Front 22

type of liverwort that has an umbrella shaped structure with sexually produced spores on the undersides

Back 22

Marchantia polymorpha

Front 23

Marchantia polymorpha has frisbee shaped asexual structures known as ________ that are dispersed by wind

Back 23

gemmae

Front 24

Tips of moss sporangia has teeth separated by spaces to serve what purpose?

Back 24

So that spores are sprinkled into the wind and dispersed over time instead of being released all at once

Front 25

Where do sporophytes and gametophytes grow on hornworts?

Back 25

-sporophytes grow up in the air

-gametophytes grow close to the ground

Front 26

What type of generation is advantageous on land and why?

Back 26

a multicellular, diploid, sporophyte generation

because it allows a single plant to disperse widely by using meiosis to produce numerous, genetically variable haploid spores where each spore has the potential to grow into a gametophyte

Front 27

what is the role of plant gametophytes?

Back 27

to produce haploid gametes

Front 28

how are plant gametes produced?

Back 28

by mitosis

therefore, all gametes produced from a single gametophyte are genetically identical

Front 29

Gametangia

Back 29

the specialized structure where gametophytes produce gametes

Front 30

Certain cells of gametangia develop into ______, while others will form...

Back 30

-gametes

-an outer protective jacket of tissue that protects the delicate gametes from drying out or from suffering microbial attacks while they develop

Front 31

gametangia that enclose a single egg cell are called _____.

Back 31

Archegonia

Front 32

gametangia that each produce many sperm are called _____.

Back 32

Antheridia

Front 33

Fertilization in bryophytes cannot occur without _____.

why?

Back 33

water

because the sperm are flagellate and need water to reach eggs

Front 34

Embryophytes

Back 34

land plants that have matrotrophic embryos

Front 35

Matrotrophy

Back 35

-zygotes remain enclosed within gametophyte tissues, where they are sheltered and fed

-gives zygotes a good start while they grow into embryos

Front 36

In the sporic life cycle, meiosis occurs within _____.

Back 36

sporangia

Front 37

Sporopollenin

Back 37

the tough material in spore cell walls that help to prevent cellular damage during transport in the air

(if the spores reach favorable habitats, the walls crack open and new gametophytes develop by mitosis and the life cycle is complete)

Front 38

Spore production is a measure of.....

Back 38

plant fitness

(because plants can better disperse progeny throughout the environment when they produce more spores)

Front 39

During plant evolution, which generation has become larger and more complex? Sporphyte or Gametophyte?

Back 39

the sporophyte generation

Front 40

4 bryophyte fundamental adaptive traits:

Back 40

-alternation of generations

-tissue-producing apical meristems

-protective gametangia and sporangia

-sporopollenin-walled spores

Front 41

Which are more common in nature, larger, and longer lived? bryophyte gametophytes or bryophyte sporophytes?

Back 41

bryophyte gametophytes

(green patches of moss that you see in the woods are primarily gametophytes

Front 42

What are some major differences between bryophyte sporophytes and sporophytes of other land plants?

Back 42

bryophyte sporophytes are small, remain attached to parent gametophytes, are unable to branch, and have short lives

sporophytes of other land plants become independent, are able to branch, and because they are able to branch they can continue to grow and produce sporangia on lateral branches for many years

Front 43

In all land plants except bryophytes, what generation is the dominant one?

Back 43

the sporophyte generation

(the dominant generation means that it is larger, more complex, and longer lived)

Front 44

True or false:

bryophytes are vascular

Back 44

false

bryophytes lack vascular tissues that provide structural support and conduction of water/nutrients, so they are nonvascular plants

Front 45

True or false:

bryophytes are more prominent than vascular plants in most modern plant communities

Back 45

false

vascular plants are more promminent

Front 46

What is the oldest phylum of living vascular plants?

Back 46

Lycophytes

Front 47

What type of lycophytes are now extinct?

Back 47

tree lycophytes

Front 48

Why were tree lycophytes important?

Back 48

contributed importantly to coal deposits

Front 49

about how many species of lycophytes exist today?

Back 49

1,000

Front 50

about how many species of pteridophytes exist today?

Back 50

12,000

Front 51

What are some examples of the modern pteridophytes?

Back 51

horsetail, whisk fern, and other ferns

Front 52

What two phyla are informally known as the seedless vascular plants?

Back 52

lycophytes and pteridophytes

Front 53

What are the three major plant organs?

Back 53

stems, roots, and leaves

Front 54

where does vascular tissue occur?

Back 54

in the major plant organs (stems, roots, and leaves)

Front 55

tracheophytes

Back 55

lycophytes, pteridophytes, and seed-producing plants, collectively

Front 56

Tracheids

Back 56

a type of specialized vascular cell that conducts water/minerals and provides structural support

Front 57

Though they are not true mosses, lycophytes are informally known as...

Back 57

club mosses or spike mosses

Front 58

Stem

Back 58

branching structures that contain vascular tissue and produce leaves and sporangia

Front 59

Ploem and xylem are located in...

Back 59

stems

Front 60

Which of the following contains tracheids:

phloem or xylem

Back 60

xylem

Front 61

the two specialized conducting tissues are called:

Back 61

phloem and xylem

(these allow vascular plants to conduct water, minerals, and organic compounds throughout the plant body)

Front 62

what does the xylem do?

Back 62

provides structural support, allowing vascular plants to grow taller than nonvascular plants

Front 63

lignin

Back 63

-a waterproofing material that aids in the support function

-occurs in the cell walls of tracheids and other types of plant cells

Front 64

roots

Back 64

organs specialized for the uptake of water and minerals from the soil

Front 65

leaves

Back 65

flattened plant organs that emerge from stems and generally have a photosynthetic function

Front 66

Difference between lycophyte and pteridophyte roots

Back 66

lycophyte roots fork at their tips, while pteridophyte roots branch from the inside (like the roots of seed plants)

Front 67

Difference between lycophyte and pteridophyte leaves

Back 67

lycophyte leaves are small and have only one unbranched vein, while pteridophyte leaves are large and have branched veins (like the leaves of seed plants)

Front 68

True or false:

Even in relatively dry habitats, lycophytes, pteridophytes, and other vascular plants are able to grow larger and live longer than bryophytes

Back 68

True

Front 69

Vascular plant adaptations that help them maintain a stable internal water content: (3)

Back 69

-conducting tissues

-waxy cuticle

-stomata

Front 70

Stomata importance

Back 70

Pores that are able to open and close and allow plants to take in CO2 needed for photosynthesis and release oxygen while conserving water

Front 71

Stomata location

Back 71

the surface tissue of vascular plant stems and leaves

Front 72

Plant cuticle importance

Back 72

-contains a polyester polymer called cut in which helps prevent attack by pathogens

-also contains wax which helps prevent desiccation (drying out)

Front 73

Plant cuticle location

Back 73

on most surfaces of vascular plant sporophytes

Front 74

What does the Stomata do when the environment is moist?

Back 74

the pores open, allowing photosynthetic gas exchange to occur

Front 75

What does the Stomata do when the environment is dry?

Back 75

the pores close, thereby reducing water loss

Front 76

Reproduction in lycophytes and pteridophytes cannot occur without _____.

Why?

Back 76

water

because the sperm need the water to "swim" to the egg

(just like bryophytes)

Front 77

How is fertilization more successful in lycophytes and pteridophytes than in bryophytes?

Back 77

if fertilization occurs in lycophytes and pteridophytes, many more spores will be produced because the spore producing sporophyte generation grows to a much larger size than bryophyte sporophytes.

Front 78

2 reasons why lycophyte and pteridophyte fertilization is more successful than bryophyte

Back 78

1) vascular plant sporophytes depend on maternal gametophytes for just a short time during embryo development before becoming independent by developing a first leaf and roots able to aid in harvesting resources needed for photosynthesis

2) the stems of vascular plant sporophytes are able to produce branches, forming large adult plants with many leaves while roots obtain large amounts of soil water/minerals that support the ability of leaves to generate abundant organic compounds by photosynthesis

Front 79

The first complete genome sequence for seedless vascular plants was for the lycophyte _________ _________ by ______ _______ in 2011.

Back 79

Selaginella moellendorffii

by Jody Banks

Front 80

genome comparisons revealed that ___(#)______ gene families are present in all land plants

Back 80

6,280

Front 81

During the transition from nonvascular, gametophyte-dominant plants (bryophytes) to vascular, sporophyte-dominant plants (lycophytes), _____ genes were gained and _____ genes were lost

Back 81

516 gained

89 lost

Front 82

True or false:

the transition from bryophyte to lycophyte was less genetically complex than the transition from lycophyte to angiosperm

Back 82

true

516 genes were gained from bryophyte to lycophyte, while 1,350 genes were gained from lycophyte to angiosperm

Front 83

How do Gymnosperms reproduce?

Back 83

using both spores and seeds

(just like angiosperms)

Front 84

How do Angiosperms reproduce?

Back 84

using both spores and seeds

(just like gymnosperms)

Front 85

Gymnosperms and angiosperms are informally known as _____ _______.

Back 85

seed plants

(because of the way they reproduce)

Front 86

cycads, ginkgos, conifers, and gnetophytes are collectively known as....

Back 86

gymnosperms

Front 87

Seeds:

Back 87

complex structures having specialized tissues that protectively enclose embryos and contain stores of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein

(the embryo use these food stores to grow and develop)

Front 88

What kind of plants are dominant on modern Earth?

Back 88

seed plants

Front 89

All the living and extinct seed plant phyla are formally known as __________.

Back 89

spermatophytes

Front 90

Many spermatophytes have the capacity to produce ______.

Back 90

wood

Front 91

what is wood composed of?

Back 91

xylem (a tissue that provides structural support because of the lignin in its cell walls)

Front 92

What makes wood exceptionally strong?

Back 92

lignin

(it "superglues" the fibrils of cellulose together)

Front 93

wood production allows plants to....

Back 93

increase in girth and become tall

Front 94

How are angiosperms distinguished from gymnosperms? (3)

Back 94

by the presence of flowers, fruits, and endosperm

Front 95

Flower:

Back 95

a short stem bearing reproductive organs that enhance seed production

Front 96

Fruits:

Back 96

structures that develop from flowers. they enclose seed and aid in seed dispersal in the environment

Front 97

Endosperm:

Back 97

a nutritive seed tissue that increases the efficiency of how food is stored in the seeds of flowering plants

Front 98

What three things are integral components of animal nutrition?

Back 98

flowers, fruits, and endosperm

Front 99

Gymnosperms lack what three things that angiosperm have?

Back 99

flowers, fruit, and endosperm

Front 100

True or false:

gymnosperm seeds are enclosed within fruits

Back 100

false

Gymnosperm means naked seed, so they are not enclosed with fruit. Angiosperm seeds ARE enclosed with fruit

Front 101

The genome sequence of what moss revealed the presence of genes that aid in heat and drought tolerance that were useful in terrestrial habitats?

Back 101

the moss Physcomitrella patens

Front 102

these three plant materials do not readily decay, and therefore help fossilize plants

Back 102

sporopollenin, cutin, and lignin

Front 103

An increase in CO2 does what to the atmosphere?

Back 103

warms it

Front 104

what kind of gas is CO2?

Back 104

a greenhouse gas

Front 105

What is an important influence plants have on Earth's climate?

Back 105

they reduce the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, which allows the climate to be cooler

Front 106

What is the modern moss genus called?

Back 106

Sphagnum

Front 107

When was the Carboniferous period?

Back 107

354-290 mya

Front 108

What kind of climate was the Carboniferous period?

Back 108

warm and moist

Front 109

What is the Carboniferous period commonly known as?

Back 109

the Coal Age

Front 110

During the Carboniferous period, _____ levels were at it's lowest, and _____ levels were at it's highest.

Back 110

CO2 at its lowest

O2 at its highest

This was because the large number of plants were consuming CO2

Front 111

The high levels of O2 during the Carboniferous period lead to what kind of animals becoming very large?

Back 111

dragonflies and other insects became ginormous

Front 112

While the Carboniferous period was overall moist and warm, but the decline of CO2 ultimately caused what change in the climate by the late Carboniferous/early Permian periods?

Back 112

the climate became cooler and dryer

Front 113

The abrupt climate change at the end of the Carboniferous period has what result on life on Earth?

Back 113

many of the tall seedless lycophytes and pteridophytes that were dominant became extinct

the large dragonflies/other insect and some other organisms became extinct as well

Front 114

The cooler and dryer climate at the end of the Carboniferous period favored what kind of new plants?

Back 114

the gymnosperms (first seed plants)

Front 115

What kind of plants became dominant during the late Carboniferous/early Permian periods?

Back 115

gymnosperms (seed plants)

Front 116

What kind of plants are better at reproducing in dryer, cooler climates?

Back 116

seed plants (gymnosperms)

Front 117

Gymnosperms dominated during what era?

Back 117

Mosozoic era (248-65 mya)

(also called the age of the dinosaurs)

Front 118

Along with gymnosperms, what else flourished during the Mesozoic era?

Back 118

early angiosperms (flowering plants) and early mammals

Front 119

About 65 mya, at least one large meteorite struck near where?

Back 119

Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico

Front 120

What is the meteorite strike called that happened 65 mya during the Mesozoic era?

Back 120

the K/T event

because it marks the end of the Cretaceous (sometime spelled with a K) period and the beginning of the Tertiary period (T)

Front 121

What was the impact the meteorite strike had on Earth's surface?

Back 121

the impact caused volcanic activity, and together they produced large amounts of ash, smoke, and haze that dimmed the sunlight long enough to kill many of Earth's plants

(and animals)

Front 122

Many kinds of plants, including _______ became extinct after the meteorite impact

Back 122

Cobbania

Front 123

What descendant of the dinosaur survived?

Back 123

the birds

Front 124

Immediately following the K/T event, what plant shortly dominated Earth?

Back 124

ferns

Front 125

What are plant embryos?

Back 125

young sporophytes that develop from zygotes and are enclosed by maternal tissues

Front 126

What is one of the first critical innovations acquired by land plants?

Back 126

the embryo

Front 127

What are some plant embryo characteristic features?

Back 127

-multicellular

-diploid (2n)

-develop by repeated mitosis from a single-celled zygote

-fertilize and develop while still enclosed by the maternal tissues

-placental transfer tissues aid in the transfer of nutrients from mother to embryo

Front 128

What does the Placental Transfer Tissue do?

Back 128

aids in the transfer of nutrients from mother to embryo

Front 129

How do nutrients move from the plant mother to the plant embryo?

Back 129

1) nutrients move from the maternal plant cells to the intercellular space between the maternal tissues and the embryo

2) transporter proteins in the membranes of nearby embryo cells import the nutrients into the embryo

Front 130

In bryophytes, all stages of sporophyte development are nutritionally dependent on ___________ tissues

Back 130

gametophyte

Front 131

True or false:

Leaves and seeds evolved several times during plant evolutionary history

Back 131

True

Front 132

Lycophylls:

(aka microphylls)

Back 132

tiny leaves on modern lycophytes that typically have only a single, unbranched vein

Front 133

What type of vascular plant produces the simplest and most ancient type of leaf?

Back 133

Lycophytes

Front 134

Experts think lycophylls evolved from __________.

Back 134

sporangia

Front 135

Euphylls:

(aka megaphylls)

Back 135

large leaves of ferns and seed plants that have extensively branched veins that are able to supply large areas of photosynthetic tissue with water and minerals

Front 136

What's the advantage of Euphylls (megaphylls) over Lycophylls (microhylls)?

Back 136

Euphylls provide more surface for solar energy capture so they can more effectively accomplish photosynthesis, which allows they to grow larger and produce more progeny

Front 137

Process of how euphylls arose:

Back 137

-one branch assumed the role of the main axis while the other branch was reduced in size and became flattened in one plane

-the spaces between the branches of the flattened system became filled with photosynthetic tissue

(this explains why euphylls have branched vascular systems)

Front 138

Heterospory:

Back 138

-produces two types of spores in two types of sporangia

-means "different spores"

Front 139

What do microsporangia produce?

Back 139

microspores, which give rise to male gametophytes that develop into pollen grains

Front 140

what do megasporangia produce?

Back 140

megaspores, which give rise to female gametophytes that develop into eggs that are enclosed by the protective megaspore walls

Front 141

Plants reproduce using what two structures?

Back 141

ovules and pollen

Front 142

Ovule:

Back 142

a sporangium that contains only a single spore that develops into a very small egg-producing gametophyte

Front 143

Integuments:

Back 143

leaflike structures that enclose the whole megasporangium

Front 144

Structure of the Ovule (5)

Back 144

-integument, megasporangium, spore wall, gametophye, and egg

-the integument surrounds the megasporangium, which surrounds the spore wall, which surrounds the gametophyte, which surrounds the egg

Front 145

Fertilization converts the layer Ovule into what?

Back 145

a seed

Front 146

Pollination:

Back 146

the process by which pollen comes close to ovules

Front 147

Fertilization cannot occur until after what?

Back 147

pollination

Front 148

When fertilization occurs, the integument develops into what?

Back 148

a seed coat

Front 149

True or false:

Angiosperm seeds store food only after fertilization

Back 149

True

this is to ensure that food is not wasted if an embryo does not form; process is called double fertilization

Front 150

Double Fertilization:

Back 150

process by which one of the two sperm delivered by the pollen tube fuses with the egg to produce a diploid zygote. The other sperm fuses with a different gametophyte nuclei to form a cell that generates the endosperm food tissue

Front 151

4 seed advantages:

Back 151

1) able to remain dormant in soil until conditions become favorable for germination

2) seeds are adapted in ways that improve dispersal (ex- "winged seeds" that can be dispersed better by wind; fleshy coverings that attract animals)

3) can store food for the embryo

4) sperm can reach eggs through the pollen tube instead of having to swim through water

Front 152

Ovules and seeds have evolved from spore-producing structures by.....

Back 152

descent with modification

Front 153

True or false:

Plants have replaced spores with seeds

Back 153

false

Front 154

Heterospory is a characteristic of all...

Back 154

seed plants

Front 155

Endosporic Gametophytes:

Back 155

the gametophytes produced by heterosporous plants that grow within the confines of microspore and megaspore walls

Front 156

What is an advantage of heterospory?

Back 156

it mandates cross-fertilization, which increases the potential for genetic variation