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26 Cards in this Set

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  • Back

deductive thinking

- type of thinking that starts with accepted definitions, general propositions, and then discovers what further knowledge that may be logically deduced from the accepted truths

inductive thinking

- type of thinking that finds the truth at the end, after a long process of investigation, experiment, and intermediate thought
- this was a part of Frances Bacon's reasoning

empirical evidence (method)

- source of knowledge gained by means of observation or experimentation
- created by Francis Bacon

Ptolemy

- Greek astronomer
- believed in a geocentric universe that all heavenly bodies revolved around including the sun and moon
- theory was adopted by the church

Scientific Revolution

- process that established the new universe
- its reliance on human reason to understand scientific phenomena reinforced changes brought about by the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation

Copernicus

- Polish priest and astronomer
- wrote "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres"
- challenged the Ptolemaic view
- adopted many Ptolemaic views, but transferred them to the heliocentric model
- he argued that the farther planets are from the sun, the longer they took to revolve around it
- he assumed the earth moved about the sun in a circle

(Tycho) Brahe

- Danish astronomer
- he didn't embrace Copernicus's views, but advocated the geocentric system
- he suggested Mercury and Venus revolved around the sun, but the moon, sun, and other planets revolved around the earth
- he constructed scientific instruments that made more extensive naked-eye observations

(Johannes) Kepler

- Brache's assistant
- German astronomer
- a convinced Copernican
- a rigorous advocate of a heliocentric model
- he was deeply influenced by Renaissance Neoplatonism
- he found that if heliocentrism was true, the planets must have an elliptical orbit
- he wrote his findings in "The New Astronomy"

Galileo

- Italian mathematician and natural philosopher
- he turned a telescope on the heavens and saw stars where none had been seen, mountains on the moon, spots moving across the sun, and moons orbiting Jupiter
- he wrote "The Starry Messenger" and "Letters on Sunspots"
- popularized the Copernican system
- he thought that the heavens conformed to mathematical regularity
- he wrote "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina" in order to explain how scripture should be interpreted to accommodate the new science
- this led to the Catholic church thinking that his ideas were trying to resemble the Protestants who looked to themselves instead of the Bible

Principia Mathematica

- also known as "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
- Newton identifies the cause of planetary motion; this established a foundation for the study of modern physics
- the principle of inertia applied to both objects at rest and in motion
- he reasoned that planets and all other physical objects in the universe moved through gravity
- gravity explained why planets moved orderly rather than chaotic

(Issac) Newton

- identified the cause of planetary motion
- identified the revolutionary idea that the planets and all other physical objects in the universe moved through mutual attraction, or gravity
- established a foundation for the study of modern physic
- wrote "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" a.k.a. "Principia Mathematica"
- believed in empiricism
- opposed the idea of rationalism

Francis Bacon

- Englishmen of almost universal accomplishment
- worked as a lawyer, a high royal official, wrote history, moral essays, and philosophical discourses
- the father of empiricism and of experimentation in science
- one of the first major Europeans to champion innovation and change
- believed human knowledge should produce useful results
- his goal was human improvement
- argued that there were two books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature

Rene Descartes

- gifted mathematician who invented analytic geometry
- developed a scientific method that relied on deduction (reasoning from general principle to arrive at facts) instead of empirical observation and induction
- wrote "Discourses on Method"
- "I think, therefore I am"
- divided existing things into two categories: thinking things and things occupying space // mind and body respectively
- separated the mind from the body to banish nonmaterial matters from the realm of scientific speculation and analysis
- wrote "Meditations" which encouraged an emphasis on deduction, rational speculation, and internal reflection of the mind in this book

Discourses on Method

- rejected scholastic philosophy, education, and advocated thought founded on a mathematical model
- rejected all forms of intellectual authority, expect the conviction of his own reason
- deduced the existence of God and since God wasn't a deceiver; the ideas of God-given reason could not be false
- written in French instead of Latin

Thomas Hobbes

- English political philosopher
- enthusiastically supported the new scientific movement
- first wrote a translation of Thucydides' classic, "History of the Peloponesian War"; developed a dark view of human nature
- wrote Leviathan: the authors attempt to philosophically justify the necessity for a strong central authority by tracing all psychological processes to bare sensation and regard all human motivations as egotistical and intended to increase pleasure and minimize pain
- claims that only a sovereign commonwealth established by a contract between the ruler and the ruled could enable human beings to meet their needs by limiting the free exercise of the natural human pursuit of self-interest with all its potential conflict

John Locke

- proved to be the most influential philosophical and political thinker of the 17th century
- his political writings became a major source of criticism of absolutism and provided a foundation for later liberal political philosophy in Europe and America
- wrote the "First Treatise of Civil Government" and "Second Treatise of Civil Government"
- portrayed that a person's mind at birth is a blank tablet whose content is determined by sense experience
- tolerate many Christian groups, but didn't extend toleration to the Roman Catholics because he believed they pledged allegiance to a foreign prince who could not be trusted
- believed humans entered into the social contract in order to form political society to secure and preserve rights (life), liberty, and property
*relationship between the governed and the government in one of trust*

Treatises of Government

- John Locke rejects the argument for absolute government that based political authority on the patriarchal model of fathers ruling over a family
- he presents an extended argument for a government that must necessarily be both responsible for and responsive to the concerns of the governed

Margaret Cavendish

- wife of the duke of Newcastle; marriage brought her to know a group of natural philosophers
- wrote "Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy" and "Grounds of Natural Philosophy"
- she was the only woman of the 17th century to be allowed to visit a meeting of the Royal Society of London
- disagreed with the ideas of Descartes and Hobbes
- criticized the Royal Society of London for being more interested in novel scientific instruments than in solving practical problems

Blaise Pascal

- French mathematician and a physical scientist
- allied himself with Jansenists
- surrendered his wealth to pursue an austere, self-disciplined life, made one of the most influential efforts to reconcile faith and new science
- wrote work to refute dogmatism and skepticism
- saw two truths: loving God exists and humans, because they're corrupted by nature, are utterly unworthy of God
- he engaged in a bet with skeptics to whom he insisted that it's a better bet to believe God exists and to stake everything on his promised mercy than not to do so

Baroque Art

- style associated with 17th century paintings, sculptures, and architecture
- painters depicted their subjects in a thoroughly naturalistic
- faithfulness to nature paralleled interest in natural knowledge associated with the rise of the new science and deeper understanding of human anatomy
- served as religious and secular
- became associated with Roman Catholicism and absolutist politics
- light, dark, elaborate

Bernini

- designed and oversaw the construction of a great tabernacle that stands beneath St. Peter's Bascilica's towering dome
- designed a monument to papal authority known as the chair of St. Peter
- designed two vast colonnades that he said symbolized the arms of the church reaching out to the world
- created a sculpture of the Spanish mystic St. Teresa of Avila

Peter Paul Rubens

- hired by king Charles I of England to decorate the ceiling of Banqueting Hall at his palace in London with paintings commemorating his father, James I
- leading religious painter of the Catholic Reformation

Witches

- believed to attend mass meetings known as sabbats
- accused of participating in sexual orgies with the devil (appeared as a she-goat)
- accused of cannibalism; believed to devour small Christian children
- 80% of these were women, most single and over 40 years old, usually widows, midwives, and healers and herbalists

Caravaggio

- most famous Baroque artist
- devoted to picturing sharp contrasts between light and darkness, which created dramatic scenes
- works are known to be theatrical as they drew the viewer into an emotional involvement in the work

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

• written by Copernicus
• commissioned to find astronomical justification so that the papacy could change the calendar so that it could correctly calculate the date of Easter
• challenged the Ptolemaic picture in the most conservative manner possible

Leviathan

- written by Thomas Hobbes


- the authors attempt to philosophically justify the necessity for a strong central authority by tracing all psychological processes to bare sensation and regard all human motivations as egotistical and intended to increase pleasure and minimize pain