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48 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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decisions |
making choices between alternatives |
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reasoning |
the process of drawing conclusions & the cognitive processes by which people start with information and come to conclusions that go beyond that information |
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deductive reasoning |
Involves SYLLOGISMS -If we know that at least a C average is required to graduate, & that Josie is graduating, then we can conclude that Josie is at least a C average -definite conclusions |
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Inductive reasoning |
We arrive at conclusions about what is probably true, based on evidence -probable conclusions |
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Structure of a syllogism (makes up deductive reasoning) |
1) statement/premise 2) statement/premise 3) conclusion |
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categorical syllogisms |
premises & conclusion describe relation between 2 categories by using statements that begin with ALL, NO, or SOME ex. Premise 1: All birds are animals. Premise 2: All animals eat food. Conclusion: therefore, all birds eat food. |
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Validity |
A syllogism is valid when its conclusion follows LOGICALLY from its 2 premises |
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Difference between validity & truth? |
Validity depends on the FORM of the syllogism Truth refers to the CONTENT of the premises |
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conditional syllogisms |
have two premises & a conclusion, but the first premise has the form of "If...then" |
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antecedent & consequent |
Antecedent- "If" term (p) Consequent- "then" term (q) |
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Affirming the antecedent |
If I study then I'll get a good grade. I studied. Therefore, I'll get a good grade.
VALID |
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Denying the consequent |
If I study, then I'll get a good grade. I did not get a good grade. Therefore, I didn't study.
VALID |
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Affirming the consequent |
If I study, then I'll get a good grade. I got a good grade.
Therefore, I studied. INVALID, maybe you didn't have to study. |
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Denying the antecedent |
If I study then I'll do good. I didn't study.
Therefore, I didn't get a good grade.
INVALID, maybe you did get a good grade.
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Watson four-card problem |
-4 cards- each with a letter on one side & a number on the other -Task: indicate which cards you would need to turn over to test the following rule~ If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side. |
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Falsification principle |
To test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule |
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pragmatic reasoning schema |
a way of thinking about cause & effect in the world that is learned as part of experiencing everyday life |
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permission schema |
States that if a person satisfies condition A (being legal age for drinking) then he or she gets to carry out action B (being served alcohol) |
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evolutionary perspective on cognition |
argues that we can trace many properties of our minds to the evolutionary principles of natural selection Adaptive characteristics will become basic characteristics of humans |
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social exchange theory |
states that an important aspect of human behavior is the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both people -essential that people be able to detect cheating behavior so that they can avoid it |
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What are some factors that can contribute to the strength of an inductive argument? |
1) Representativeness of observations 2) Number of observations 3) Quality of the evidence |
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heuristics |
rules of thumb |
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Availability heuristic |
states that events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily remembered |
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illusory correlations |
when a correlation between two events appears to exist, but in reality there is no correlation or it is much weaker than it is assumed to be -occurs when we expect 2 things to be related so we fool ourselves into thinking they are related even when they are not |
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stereotype |
an oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative |
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representativeness heuristic |
states that the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resembles the properties we usually associate with class B |
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base rate |
the relative proportion of different classes in the population for ex. in 1972, there were more farmers than male librarians so people would say the man was a farmer
-disregarded when descriptive information is there |
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conjunction rule |
states that the probability of a conjunction of two events (A & B) cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents (A alone or B alone)
-Linda is a bank teller -Linda is a bank teller & is active in the feminist movement
*the second one cannot have a higher probability than the first one
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law of large numbers |
states that the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population |
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confirmation bias |
tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and to overlook information t hat argues against it |
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expected utility theory |
based on the assumption that people are basically rational, so if they have all the relevant information they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility |
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utility |
refers to outcomes that achieve a person's goals |
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expected emotions |
emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome |
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immediate emotions |
emotions that are experienced at the time a decision is being made 2 types: 1) integral immediate emotions 2) incidental immediate emotions |
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Integral immediate emotions |
emotions that are associated with the act of making a decision
ex. Deal or No Deal contestant |
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Incidental immediate emotions |
Emotions that are unrelated to the decision -ex. someone is naturally happy |
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risk aversion |
the tendency to avoid taking risks |
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Why do people overestimate what their negative feelings will be? |
One reason is that when making their prediction they don't take into account the various coping mechanisms they may use to deal with adversity |
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opt-in procedure |
signing card to be organ donor -requires the person to take an active step |
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opt-out procedure |
in which everyone is a potential organ donor unless he or she requests not to be |
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When do people use a risk aversion strategy & a risk taking strategy? |
Risk aversion strategy- when a choice is framed in terms of gains
risk taking strategy- when a choice is framed in terms of losses |
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framing effect |
decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated or framed |
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Effect of Damage to the Prefrontal Cortex |
1)Planning & Preservation 2) Problem Solving 3) Understanding Stories 4) Reasoning |
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Neuroeconomics |
combines research from the fields of psychology, neuroscience, & economics -research has identified areas of the brain that are activated as people make decisions while playing economic games |
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ultimatum game |
two players play one is designed as the proposer & the other as responder proposer is given a sum of money and makes offer to responder as to how this money should be split between them if the responder accepts, money is split. if he rejects, no one gets anything. Game is over after responder makes decision |
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What part of the brain responds to rejection? |
right anterior insula, an area located between the parietal & temporal lobes |
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What goals do prefrontal cortex & anterior insula have? |
Anterior insula- emotional goals prefrontal cortex- cognitive goals |
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omission bias |
the tendency to do nothing to avoid having to make a decision that could be interpreted as causing harm |
