Cellular Respiration

Front 1

Metabolism

Back 1

all reactions in body that involve energy transformations

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Metabolism divided into

Back 2

-catabolism
-anabolism

Front 3

Catabolism

Back 3

breaks down molecules and releases energy
-is the primary source of energy for making ATP

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Anabolism

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makes larger molecules and requires energy
-source of body's large energy-storage compunds

Front 5

Aerobic cellular respiration

Back 5

series of chemical reactions whereby glucose (or other moelecues) and oxygen are converted into carbon dioxide and water in the process of making adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

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1 glucose molecule can be made into

Back 6

30-38 ATP molecules

Front 7

Anaerobic cellular respiration

Back 7

series of chemical reactions whereby glucose (no oxygen) is converted into carbon dioxide and water in the process of making ATP

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1 glucose molecule can be made into

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2 ATP molecules

Front 9

Both aerobic and anaerobic respirations begin with

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glycolysis

Front 10

Glycolysis

Back 10

metabolic pathway by which glucose (C6H12O6) is converted to 2 pyruvates

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Pyruvates

Back 11

-pyruvic acid
(C3H4O3)
-occurs in cytoplasm
-does not require oxygen

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Glycolysis net equation

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glucose+2NAD+2ADP+2Pi> 2pyruvates+2NADH+2ATP

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NAD

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Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

Front 14

NAD carries

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electrons

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Glycolysis prodouces net gain of

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2ATPs and 2NADHs

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Glycolysis involves _ indivual steps

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9

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Step 1 glycolysis

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-Glucose must be activated with ATP (phosphorylation) before energy can be ontained
-phosphorylation traps glucose inside cell by forming glucose 6-phosphate

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Step 2 glycolysis

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glucose 6-phosphate is converted to its isomer fructose 6-phosphate

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Step 3 glycolysis

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another ATP is used to form fructose 1, 6-biphosphate

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Step 4 glycolysis

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fructose 1, 6 -biphosphate is converted into two 3C molecules, 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde

Front 21

Step 5 glycolysis

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2 pairs of hydrogens are removed and added to NAD forming NADH and 1,3-biphosphoglyceric acid

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Step 6 glycolysis

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a phosphate is removed from each 1, 3-biphosphoglyceric acid forming 2 ATP and 3-phosphoglyceric acid

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Step 7 Glycolysis

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3-phosphoglyceric acid is changed to the isomer 2-phosphoglyceric acid

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Step 8 Glycolysis

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2-phosphoglyceric acid is changed to the isomer phosphoenolpyruvic acid

Front 25

Step 9 glycolysis

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last phosphate is removed from phosphoenolpyruvic acid forming 2 more ATP and pyruvic acid
-Net gain of 2ATP

Front 26

To avoid end-product inhibition,

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there must be sufficient NAD
-NADHs produced in glycolysis need to give Hs away

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Anaerobic respiration aka

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lactic acid fermentation

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Lactic acid is formed when

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NADH gives its Hs to pyruvate (in absense of O2)

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Lactic acid is the cause for

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-muscle fatigue
-cell death in excessive high concentrations

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RBCs dont' have _ so they use _

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mitochondria, lactic acid pathway

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Step 5 glycolysis

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2 pairs of hydrogens are removed and added to NAD forming NADH and 1,3-biphosphoglyceric acid

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Step 6 glycolysis

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a phosphate is removed from each 1, 3-biphosphoglyceric acid forming 2 ATP and 3-phosphoglyceric acid

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Step 7 Glycolysis

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3-phosphoglyceric acid is changed to the isomer 2-phosphoglyceric acid

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Step 8 Glycolysis

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2-phosphoglyceric acid is changed to the isomer phosphoenolpyruvic acid

Front 35

Step 9 glycolysis

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last phosphate is removed from phosphoenolpyruvic acid forming 2 more ATP and pyruvic acid
-Net gain of 2ATP

Front 36

To avoid end-product inhibition,

Back 36

there must be sufficient NAD
-NADHs produced in glycolysis need to give Hs away

Front 37

Anaerobic respiration aka

Back 37

lactic acid fermentation

Front 38

Lactic acid is formed when

Back 38

NADH gives its Hs to pyruvate (in absense of O2)

Front 39

Lactic acid is the cause for

Back 39

-muscle fatigue
-cell death in excessive high concentrations

Front 40

RBCs dont' have _ so they use _

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mitochondria, lactic acid pathway

Front 41

Why can't cells store a lot of seperate glucose molecules?

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because the osmotic pressure would draw large amounts of water into cells, instead some organs store glucose as glycogen

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Glycongenesis

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process of polymerizing glucose into glycogen

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Step 1 glycongenesis

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glucose is converted to glucose 6-phosphate

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Step 2 glycongenesis

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glucose 6-phosphate is then converted to its isomer, glucose 1-phosphate

Front 45

Step 3 glycongenesis

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enzyme glycogen synthase removes phosphates as it polymerizes glucose to form glycogen

Front 46

Glycongenolysis

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conversion of glycogen to glucose 6-phosphate

Front 47

what enzyme removes phosphate to free glucose?

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glucose 6-phosphatase from liver to blood

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Step 1 glycogenolysis

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glycogen is catalyzed by glycogen phophorylase

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Step 2 glycogenolysis

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glucose 1-phosphate is formed

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Step 3 glycogenolysis

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glucose 6-phosphate is converted
-can be used for glycolysis by skeletal muscle

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Cori cycle

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2-way traffic between skeletal muscle and the liver

Front 52

Most of _ produced in _ respiration is eliminated by _respiration where is made into _ and _.

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lactic acid, anaerobic, aerobic, CO2 and H2O

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Lactic acid dehydrogenase converts

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lactic acid to pyruvic acid to glucose 6-phosphate

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Some of the _ produced in _ goes to _ where it is converted back to _

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lactic acid, anaerobic, liver pyruvate

Front 55

In cori cycle, _ can then be converted to _ or _

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glucose 6-phosphate, free glucose, glycogen

Front 56

Aerobic respiration is preceded by

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glycolysis (2 pyruvates, 2
ATP, 2 NADH)

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what is the end product of aerobic respiration?

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CO2, H2O and ATP

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Step 1 Aerobic Respiration

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pyruvic acid leaves the cytoplasm and enters the mitochondria

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Step 2 Aerobic respiration

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CO2 is enzymatically removed from each 3-carbon long pyruvic acid to form a 2-carbon long acetic acid

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Step 3 Aerobic respiration

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the acetic acid is combined with a coenzyme, Coenzyme A= Acetyl conenzyme A

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acetyl CoA=_ C molecule

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2 carbon molecule

Front 62

1 pyruvic acid converted into _ molecules of _ and _ of _

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one, acetylCoA, one, CO2

Front 63

1 glucose converted into _ molecules of _ and _ of _

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two, acetylCoA, two, CO2

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Oxygen derive in CO2 is derived from _ not from _ gas

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pyruvic acid, oxygen

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Energy in _is extracted during aerobic respiration in _

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acetylCoA, mitochondria

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CO2 is goes to

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the lungs

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During glycolysis, 1 glucose>

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2 pyruvate

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1 pyruvate (3 carbon)> _

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1 acetylCoA + 1 CO2

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1 glucose>

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2 acetyl CoA + 2CO2

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Oxygen in CO2 is not from breathed O2 gas, it's from

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glucose

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Kreb cycle aka _ aka _

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citric acid cyle, tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle

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1 acetyl CofA (2 carbons) combines with _ to form _

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oxaloacetic acid (4 carbons), citric acid (6C carbon)

Front 73

In kreb cycle, 1 guanosine triphosphate (GTP) which donates a _ to _ to produce _.

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phosphate group, ADP, ATP

Front 74

3 molecules of NAD are reduced to

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NADH

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1 molecule of FAD is reduced to

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FADH2

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_ and _ carry electrons to _

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NADH, FADH2, electron transport chain (ETC)

Front 77

Byproducts of kreb cycle

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2 more CO2 (waste)

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ETC is a _ on _

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linked series of proteins, foldings of mitochondria

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Foldinds of mitochondria

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cristae

Front 80

Proteins in michondria include

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flavin mononucelotide FMN
conenzyme Q
iron containing pigments (cytochromes)

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cytochromes are

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iron pigments found in cristae

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_ and _ are regenerated to shuttle more _ from _ to _

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NAD, FAD, electrons, krebs cycle, ETC

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_ and _ are _ when by transferring their electrons to _

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NADH, FADH2, oxidized, ETC

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Exergonic process is

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ETC reduces electrons and oxydizes at the same time

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Energy gained from exergonic process is used to _ _ to _.

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phosphorylation of ADP, ATP

Front 86

Oxydative phosphorylation is

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the production of ATP though the coupling of the ET system with phosphorylation of ADP

Front 87

Chemiosmotic theory states

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energy gathered by ETC by the passage of e- is used to pump H+ into mitochondria outer chamber
-creates high H+ concentration

Front 88

ATP synthasis

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ADP+Pi=ATP

Front 89

_ added to the beginning of _ by _ and _ are passed along until they reach the last member of ETC (_)

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e-, ETC, NADH and FADH2, cytochrome a3

Front 90

_ is reduced and serves as the final e- acceptor by combining with _ to form _

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O2, 4H+, H2O

Front 91

O2+4e-+4H >

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2 H2O

Front 92

_ is deadly because it blocks transfer of _ to _

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cyanide, e-, cytochrome a3

Front 93

ATP can be made in 2 ways

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-Direct (substrate level)phosphorylation
-oxidative phosphorylation

Front 94

Direct phosphorylation is where

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ATP is generated when bonds break (i.g.glycolysis and 2 ATPs/glucose in krebs)

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Oxidative phosphorylation is where

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ATP is generated by ETC, 30-32 ATPs made this way
-H+s pass thru ATP synthase to generate ATP

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theoretically yields _ ATPs/glucose

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36-38, however some ATPs are used to pump ATPs out of mitochondria

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_ ATPs/ glucose include

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30-32
26 ATP produced in ETC
2 from glycolysis
2 from direct phosphorylation in Krebs

Front 98

For energy, Fats can be _ to _ and _

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hydrolyzed, glycerol and fatty acids
-can be modified to run thru Krebs to make ATP

Front 99

For energym Proteins can be broken down to _, which can be _, converted into _ and run through krebs

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amino acids, deaminated, pyruvate

Front 100

When more _ is taken in than consumed _ is inhibited

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energy (food)
ATP sysnthesis
-we do not store ATP

Front 101

_ converted into _ and _ can be broken down to form _

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glucose
glycogen
fat
ATP

Front 102

When _ is going to be converted to _, _ first occurs forming _, which is converted to _

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glucose
fat
glycolysis
pyruvate
acetylCoA

Front 103

_ is a common substrate for energy and synthetic pathways because it can be sent to _ or made into

Back 103

acytolCoA
krebs
cholesterol
bile salts
steroid hormones
ketones
fatty acids

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_ + _= fat (triglycerides)

Back 104

fatty acids
glycerol

Front 105

fat production occurs mainly in

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adipose and liver tisse when blood glucose are high after meal

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1 g fat= _ _kilocalories of energy vs. 1 g carbohydrate= _kilocaries of energy

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9
4

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Lypolysis is the

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breakdown of fat into free fatty acids and glycerol via hydrolysis by lipase

Front 108

Lypolysis breaks down triglyceride to

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glycerol
fatty acid chains

Front 109

Some organs use glycerol to form _

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phoshphoglyceraldehyde

Front 110

Most fatty acids are used in a process called

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beta oxidation

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Fatty acid chains are

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long hydrocarbons with COOH at end

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A _ C fatty acid chain can yield _ C acetyl CoA molecules

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16C
8C

Front 113

Each acetylCoA molecule can run through krebs giving _ ATPs

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10
note:oxidative phosphorylation can make 28 ATP per 16 C fatty acid chain

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Each acetylCoA can result in _ and _

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1 NADH
2 FADH

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beta oxidation total

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108 ATP from 16 carbon chain

Front 116

Brown fat is a major site for

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thermogenesis in the newborn
-amount greatest at time of birth

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Brown fat not a major source of energy because it produces _ protein

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uncoupling

Front 118

Uncoupling protein caused _ to leak out of inner mitochondiral membrane thus fewer H+ pass through ATP synthase making less _

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H+
ATP

Front 119

Lower ATP causes ETC to be _ which generates _ instead of ATP

Back 119

more active
heat

Front 120

Triglycerides are continually broken down forming _ and _ and _ to ensure its contained for aerobic respiration by other organs

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glycerol
fatty acids
resynthesized

Front 121

During fasting and diabetes

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-rate of lipolysis exceeds fatty acid utilization
-blood fatty acid increases

Front 122

If liver (ATP) are sufficient so that it is not being made, some _ will enter metabolic pathway forming _

Back 122

acetylCoA
ketone bodies

Front 123

Ketone bodies include

Back 123

acetoacetic acid
acetone
beta hydroxybutric acid

Front 124

In fasting conditions, fat metabolites

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ketosis
ketonuria

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Ketosis

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too high in blood

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Ketonuria

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too high in urine
-gives breath an acetone (sweet)

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Nitrogen ingested primarily as _ which is used in body as _

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protein
amino acids

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Excess N is excreted mainly as _

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urea

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N balance=

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N ingested-N excreted

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Positive N balance

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more N ingested than extreted bc used in protein synthesis

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Negative N balance

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less N ingested than excreted bc proteins are broken down

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Excess amino acids can be _ converted into _ and _

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deaminated
carbohydrates
fat

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_ used to build all proteins

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20 amino acids

Front 134

_ can be produced by body

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12
nonessential amino acids

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_ must come from diet

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8
essential amino acids

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Tranamination

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addition of amine (NH2) to pyruvate or krebs cycle acids called "keto acids" (ketone functional) to make new amino acid
Note- not confuse with ketone bodies that derive from acetylCoA

Front 137

Transaminase is

Back 137

an enzyme that catalyzes in transamination

Front 138

Oxidative deamination is the process by which

Back 138

excess amino acids are eliminated

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Steps Oxidative deamination

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-NH2 is removed from glutamic acid forming keto acid and ammonia

Front 140

Ammonia is converted to

Back 140

urea and excreted

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Keto acid goes to

Back 141

Krebs or to fat or glucose

Front 142

Main substrates for gluconeogenesis

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alanine
lactic acid
glycerol

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Gluconeogenesis is the formation of

Back 143

glucose from non-carbohydrates

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Brain uses _ as its major source of energy

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glucose

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Under fasting conditions, blood glucose is supplied mostly from _ via _ and _

Back 145

liver
glycogenolysis
gluconeogenesis