Cellular Biology

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Atrophy

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a wasting or decrease in size or physiologic activity of a part of the body because of disease or other influences.

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Hypertrophy

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an increase in the size of an organ caused by an increase in the size of the cells rather than the number of cells. (Ex: the cells of the heart and kidney are particularly prone to this growth)

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Hyperplasia

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an increase in the number of cells of a body part that results from an increased rate of cellular division.

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Metaplasia

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the reversible conversion of normal tissue cells into another, less differentiated cell type in response to chronic stress or injury.
(With prolonged exposure to the inducing stimulus, cancerous transformation can occur)

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Dysplasia

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any abnormal development of tissues or organs. An alteration in cell growth results in cells that differ in size, shape and apperance often as a result of chronic irritation.

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Hypoxia

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inadequate oxygen tension at the cellular level, characterized by tachycardia, hypertension, peripheral vasoconstriction, dizziness, and mental confusion.

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What are some physical agents responsible for cell and tissue injury?

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Mechanical foreces, extremes of temperature, and electrical forces.

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Chemical agents capable of damaging cells?

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Air and water pollution (smoke & some processed food), lead, strong acids and bases, ETOH, Antiplastic & immunosuppressant drugs, and Acetaminophen.

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Bilogic Agents

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These agents differ in that they are able to replicate and can continue to produce injury. (submicroscopic viruses-large parasites)

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Ionizing Radiation

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This affects cells by causing ionization of molecules and atoms in the cell, by directly hitting the target molecules in the cell, or by producing free radicals that interact with critical cell components. It can immediately kill cells, interrupt cell replication, or cause a variety of genetic mutations, which could be lethal. (depends on dose, teh dose rate, and the differential sensitivity of the exposed tissue to radiation injury.

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Nutritional Imbalances

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Obesity and diets high in saturated fats predispose one to artherosclerosis. Iron deficiency anemia, scurvy, beriberi, and pellagra are caused by lack of a specific vitamin/minerals. Protein and caloric deficiencies that occur with starvation cause widespread tissue damage.

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Free Radical Injury

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a highly reactive chemical species arising from an atom that has a single unpaired electron in an outer orbit. FR formation is a byproduct of many normal cellular reactions in the body such as energy generation, breakdown of lipids and proteins, and inflammatory process.

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Apoptosis

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Greek apo for "apart" and ptosis for "fallen," meaning "fallen apart."

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Necrosis

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This refers to cell death in an organ or tissue that is still part of a living person. (differs from apoptosis in that it involves unregulated enzymatic digestion of cellcomponents, loss of cell membrane integrity with uncontrolled release of the products of cell death int the intracellular space, and initiation of the inflammations to remove cells so they can be replaced by new cells)

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Gangrene

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Applied when a considerable mass of tissue undergoes necrosis.

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Facilitated Diffusion

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This occurs down a concentration gradient; thus, it does not require input of metabolic energy but does require a transport protein to assist in movement through the cell membrane because they are not lipid soluble or they are too large to pass through pores.

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Can substance move from an area of lower to higher concentration with facilitated diffusion?

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No, only from higher to lower concentration.

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Endocytosis

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This is the process by which cells engulg materials from their surroundings.

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Pinocytosis

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This involves the ingestion of small solid or fluid particles.

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Phagocytosis

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Literally means "cell eating" which involves the engulfment and subsequent killing or degradation of microorganismsand other particulate matter.

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Exocytosis

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The mechanism for the secretion of intracellular substances into the extracellular spaces.

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Active Transport

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The movement of materials across the membranes and epithelial layers of a cell by means of chemical activity that allows the cell to admit otherwise impermeable molecules against a concentration gradient.

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Metabolic Absorption

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>>>>?

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Secretion

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>>>>>?

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Respiration

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>>>>>?

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Reproduction

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>>>>>>?

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Communication

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>>>>>?

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Nucleus

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Nuclear Envelop, Nucleolus, DNA, Histone Proteins, Cell Division, Gentic Info

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All Eukaryotic cells do not have a nucleus.
True/False?

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False: All eukaryotic cells have at least one nucleus (prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, lack a nucleaus and nuclear membrane)

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Nucleus

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This appears as a round or elongated structure situated near the center of the cell.

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Nucleolus

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Any one of the small, dense structures composed largely of ribonucleic acid and situated within the cytoplasm of cells. Very essential in the formation of ribosomes that synthesize cell proteins.

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This is the control center for the cell.

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Nucleus

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The Nucleus contains an essential component to the cell that contains genetic information necessary for the synthesis of proteins that the cell must produce to stay alive.

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DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

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Histone

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Any of a group of strongly basic, low-molecular-weight proteins that are soluble in water and insoluble in the dilute ammonia and combine with DNA to form nucleoproteins. (Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, where they form a complex with DNA in the chromatin and function in regulating gene activity.

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What is the nuclear envelope composed of?

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Two membranes with the outer membrane being continous with membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum.

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Histone

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DNA-binding proteins that regulate its activity

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What is the primary function of the nucleus?

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Cell division and control of genetic information.

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Plasma Membrane

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Controls the composition of a space or compartment they enclose and has an important role in cell-to-cell recognition.

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Caveolae

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"Tiny Caves" the outer surface of the plasma membrane that is not smooth, dimpled with cavelike indentations. Serves as a storage site for many receptors and provide a route for transport into the cell.

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Lipids

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The basic component of the plasma membrane composed of two layers of phospholipids, glycolipids, and cholesterol.

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Amphipathic Lipids

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One part is hydrophobic (uncharged, or "water-hating") and another part hydrophilic (charged or "water-loving")

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Carbohydrate

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(Oligosaccharides) contained within the plasma membrane generally bound to the membrane protein and lipids.

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Glycoproteins

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Proteins attached to carbohydrates that act as cell surface markers that identify a cell to its nighbor.

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Protein

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Made from a chain of amino acids, aka polypeptides.

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Integral Membrane Protein

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These proteins are embedded in the lipid bilayer and linked to either phosphatidylinositol, a mino phospholipid, or a fatty acid chain.

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Peripheral Membrane Protein

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These proteins are not embedded in the bilayer but reside at one surgace or the other, bound to an integral protein.

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Transmembrane Protein

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>>>>>?

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Cellular Receptors

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Protein molecules on the plasma membrane, in the cytoplasm, or in the nucleus that can recognize and bind with specific smaller molecules called ligands (hormones are ligands)

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Purpose of Proteins

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Receptors, Transport, Enzymes, Surface markers, Cell adhesion molecules, Catalysts.

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Cell Adhesion Molecules
(CAMs)

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Proteins that allow cells to hook together and form attachments of the cytoskeleton for maintaining cellular shape.

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Plasma Membrane Receptors

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These protrude from or are exposed at the external surface of the membrane and are important for cellular uptake of ligands.

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Gap Junctions
(contact signaling)

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These are clusters of communicating tunnels or connexons that allow small ions and molecules to pass directly from the inside of one cell to the inside of another.

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Connexons

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These are joining proteins that extend outward from each of the adjacent plasma membranes.

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Chemical Signaling of Cellular Communication

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Paracrine
Autocrine
Hormonal
Neurohormal

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Paracrine Signaling

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Cells secrete local chemical mediators that are quickly taken up, destroyed, or immobilized.
(Usually involve different cell types)

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Autocrine Signaling

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Cells that produce signals to which they alone respond.
(EX: CA cells use this form to stimulate their survival and proliferation, acting only on nearby cells)

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Hormonal Signaling

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This involves specialized endocrine cells that secrete chemicals that are released by one set of cells and travel through the bloodstream to produce a response in other sets of cells.

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Neurohormonal Signaling

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Hormones that are released into the blood by neurosecretory neurons.

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Neurotransmitter

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Neurons way of communicating directly with the cells they innervate with by releaseing chemicals at specialized junctions and diffuses across the synaptic cleft and acts on the postsynaptic target cell.

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Membrane Transport

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(Cellular I/O)
Cells continually take in nutrients, fluids and chemical messengers from the extracellular environment and expel metbolites, or the products of metabolism, and end products of lysosmal digestion.

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Electolyets, which are electrically charged, make up ____ of solutes.

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95%

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Cations

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Positively charged and migrate toward the negative pole (ex Na+)

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Anions

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Negatively charged and maigrate toward the positive pole. (ex Cl-)

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Passive Transport

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Water and Small electrically uncharged molecules move easily through pores in the plasma membrane's lipid bilayer. (No energy required)

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Diffusion

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This refers to the process by which molecules and other particles in a solution become widely dispersed and reach a uniform concentration because of energy created by their spontaneous kinetic movements. (Concentration gradient)

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Concentration Gradient

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The is the difference in concentration

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Filtration

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The movement of water and solutes through a membrane because of a greater pushing pressure (force) on one side of the membrane than on the other side. (ex: Hydrostatic Pressure)

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Hydrostatic Pressure

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The mechanical force of water pushing against cellular membranes.

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Osmosis

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This is controlled by the concentration of nondiffusible particles on either side of a semipermeable membrane.
Water moves from area of lower concentration of particles and higher concentration of water to and area of higher concentration of particle and lower concentration of water.

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Osmolality

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Measures the number of milliosmoles per kilogram (mOsm/kg) of water, or the concentration of molecules per weight of water.

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Osmolarity

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Measures the number of milliosmoles per liter of solution, or the concentration of molecules per volume of solution.

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Tonicity

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Describes the effective osmolality of a solution.
(Terms osmolality and tonicity can be used interchangeably)

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Isotonic

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has the same osmolality/concentration of particles as the ICF/ECF.

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Hypertonic

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Has lower concentration and is thus more dilute than body fluids.

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Hypotonic

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Has a concentration of more than 285-294 mOsm/kg.

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Passive mediated transport
(facilitated diffusion)

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Here the protein transporter moves solute molecules through cellular membranes without expending metabolic energy.

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Active Mediated Transport

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The protein tranporter moves molecules against, or up, the concentration gradient. (this requires the expidenture of energy)
(EX: Na/K ATPase pump)

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Name some Avtive Transport vesicles:

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Endocytosis
>Pinocytosis
>Phagocytosis
>Receptor Mediated
>Caveolae
Exocytosis

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Resting Membrane Potential

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The difference in electrical charge or voltage resting about -70 to -85 milliolts.

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Action potential

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When a nerve or muscle cell receives a stimulus that exceeds the membrane threshold value, a rapid change occurs in the resting membrane potential.

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Depolarization

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When a resting cell is stimulated though voltage-regulated channels, the cell membranes become more permeable to sodium, so a net movement of sodium into the cell occurs and the membrane potential decreases.

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In order to generate an action potential and the resulting depolarization what must be reached?

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Threshold Potential

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Hyperpolarized

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When the membrane potential is more negative than normal

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Hypopolarized

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When the membrane potenital is more positive than normal, leading to a much weaker stimulus to reach the threshold potential.

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Repolarization

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The negative polarity of the resting membrane potential is reestablished.

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Absolute Refactory period

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During most of the action potential, the plasma membrane can not respond to an additional stimulus. (which is related to the change in permeability to sodium)

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Relative Refactory period

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When permeability to potassium increases, a stronger than normal stimulus can evoke an action potential.

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What are the two phases involved during the reproduction of other body cells?

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Mitosis and Cytokinesis

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Mitosis

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Nuclear Division

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Cytokinesis

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Cytoplasmic Division

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Interphase

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Separation for division occurs during the growth phase.

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G1 phase

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The period between the M phase and the start of DNA synthesis.

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S phase

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The period where DNA is synthesized in the cell nucleus

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G2 phase

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The period where RNA and protein synthesis occurs, namely, the period between the completion of DNA synthesis and he next phase.

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Prophase

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The M phase of the cell cycle, mitosis and cytokinesis, begining the first appearance of chromosomes

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Metaphase

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Phase where the centromeres become aligned in the middle of the spindle, which is called the equatorial plate of the cell.

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Anaphase

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This begins when the centromeres split and the sister chromatides are pulled apart.

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Telophase

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The final stage, a new nuclear membrane is formed around each group of 46 chromosomes, the spindle fibers disappear, and the chromosomes begin to uncoil.

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Simple Squamous Epithelium

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Single Layer of cells located in the lining of blood vessels, and pulmonary alveoli. Function is to diffuse and filtrate, seperate blood from fluids in tissues, and air from fluid.

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Stratified Squamous Epithelium

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Two or more layers, depending on location, with cells closest to basement membrane tending to be cuboidal. Located in the Epidermis of skin and the linings of mouth, pharyn,esophagus, anus. Functions to protect and secretion.

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Transitional Epithelium

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Vary in shape from cuboidal to squamous depending on whether basal cells of bladder are columnar or are composed of many layers; when bladder is full and stretched, the cells flatten and stretch, like squamous cells. Located in the lining of the urinary bladder and other hollow structures. Functions to stretch that permits expansion of hollow organs.

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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

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Simple cuboidal cells; rarely stratified (layered) located in glands (thyroid, sweat, salivary) and parts of kidney tubule and outer coverying of ovary. Its function is secretion.

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Simple Columnar Epithelium

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Large amounts of cytoplasm and cellular organelles located in the lining of digestive tract function for secretion and absorption from stomach to anus.

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Stratified Columnar Epithelium

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Small and rounded basement membrane (columnar cells do not touch basement membrane) located in the linings of epiglottis, part of pharynx, anus, and male urethra. Function is for protection.

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Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

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All cells in contact with basement membrane Nuclei found at different levels within cell, giving stratified appearance, free surface often ciliated. Located in the linings of large ducts of some glands (parotid, salivary), male urethra, respiratory passages, and eustachian tubes of ears. Function to transport substances.

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Chromosome abnormalities

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Leading cause in retardation and miscarriage.

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Euploid Cells

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Cells with a multiple of the normal number of chromosomes

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Polyploid Cell

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When a euploid cell has more than the diploid number of chromosome. (including some liver, bronchial, and epithelial tissues)

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Tetraploidy

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A zygote that has three copies of each chromosome, rather than the usual two, a condition in which euploid cells have 92 chromosomes. (nearly all fetuses are spontaneously aborted or stillborn)

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Aneuploid cell

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A cell that does not contain a mulitple of 23 chromosomes (trisomy, monosomy)

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Monosomy

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Most lethal autosomes (aneuploid)

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Down Syndrome

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Aneuploidy in an autosome is trisomy of the twenty-first chromosome. (risk increases with age of maternal egg cells)

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Trisomy X

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This Sex Chromosome Aneuploidy has three X chromosomes in females instead of two but displays no overt physical abnormality (although sterility, menstrual irregularity, or mental retardation. If four X's occur they are more often mentally retarded and with five X chromosomes, generally are more severely mental retarded and various physical defects.

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Turners Syndrome

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A sex chromosome is missing and the person's chromosomes are 45, X. S/S are short stature, female genitalia, webbed neck, shieldlike chest with underdeveloped breasts and widely spaced nipples, and imperfectly developed ovaries.

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Klinefelter Syndrome

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A sex chromosome aneuploidy exhibits s/s of small testes, some development of the breasts, sparse body hair, and long limbs, which results from the presence of two or more X chromosomes with one Y chromosome.

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Cri Du CHat Syndrome

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meaning "cry of the cat," this disease caused by chromosomal deletion (of the short arm of chromosome 5) displays crying in the affected child. Other symptoms: low birth weight, severe mental retardation, microcephaly, and heart defects.

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Robertsonian Translocation

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This translocation is responsible for approximately 3-5% of Down Syndrome, involving chromosome 21.

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Fragile X Syndrome

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Second most common genetic cause of mental retardation (following Down Syndrome).