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184 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what is the fastest growing age group
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90 year olds
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life span 2,000years ago?
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22
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life span 100 years ago?
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49
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life span today?
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77
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today men's vs. women's ages of lifespan?
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men 74-75, women 79-80
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why do men have lover age range?
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because of heart disease prevalence in males
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Why was the life span increased?
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because of the antibiotic
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how many classes of the antibiotic have been discovered in the past 40 years since they were created in 1940s/1950s?
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two
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when was penicillin discovered, by who, and how was it discovered and what is antibiosis?
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discovered 1928, by Alexander Flemming, discovered by accident because he was watching Antibiosis. Antibiosis is when 2+ organisms interact and one is killed off.
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Why might the lifespan of humans go down?
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Because of the onset/prevalence of obesity; 2/3 of country obese
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BMI NORMAL
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19-24.9
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BMI OVERWEIGHT
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25-29.9
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BMI OBESE
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30-39.9
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BMI OBESE MORBID
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40+
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100 year older person is called what?
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centenarian
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1/1,000 people who reach what age will continue on to reach what age?
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1/1,000 people who reach 100 will reach 110
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when you become 110, what are you called?
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super centenarian
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2% of people who reach what age will continue on to what age?
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2% of people who reach 110 will reach 115.
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Oldest living person, how old and from where?
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122 from france
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Do humans have a max life span? And if so, what is it?
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humans DO have a max life span, which has not changed, and its 120 years old.
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How many body cells do humans have relatively?
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90 trillion
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Do human cells and eleghan cells do the same thing?
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yes
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life span of eleghan? life span of mouse? life span rat?
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eleghan= 14 days, mouse=20 months, rats= 28 months
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If we manipulate genes of eleghan, mice and rats, how much can we increase their life span
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by 7-8x
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Theory of Aging: Neuroendocrine (programmed)
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our cells have clocks
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where is somatotropin produced?
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anterior pituitary
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as we age what happens to our hormone productions, and what does this lead to?
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as we age, there's a decrease in growth of hormone production which leads to sarcopenia (muscle wasting) and overall aging.
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What is the importance of growth hormone?
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It is important for protein synthesis and insulin because it breaks down fat, and is important for bone formation. Too much is bad = steroids.
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study of 100 year olds and growth hormones
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100 year olds were given growth hormones 3x per week. At first, showed improvement, but there was then a downfall because they developed cardiovascular disease and died.
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Theory of Aging: Gene Mutation Theory =
What is a mutation? |
a mutation is an alteration of genetic material that occurs during DNA synthesis
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What are the 3 types of mutations:
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1) exposure - stop - codon
2) inclusion - of - intron 3) exclusion - of - intron |
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How are mutations and aging related?
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Aging is the result of genetic mutations, but mutations are NOT enough to cause death.
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Exons vs. Introns
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exons are protein-coding-segments, and introns are not
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Theories of Aging: Disposable Soma theory ; what is this theory and who founded it
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founded by Kirkwood and he states that an organism must divide energy between reproductive cells and somatic cells. There's an emphasis put on reproductive cells to ensure the evolution of humanity, and because of this emphasis, there is a cause of mutation on somatic cells.
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MHC
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Major Histo-compatibility Complex. Help identify self cells vs. non-self cells. Mutations of MHC are overturned by auto-immune. The MHC gene mutates with age therefore not being able to recognized self cells from non-self cells
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Theory of Aging: Cross-Linking theory ; What are the 4 classes of protein
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1) primary- amino acid sequence held together by polypeptide chains
2) secondary- alpha helix and beta-beaded sheets 3) teirtrarchy - structures held together by hydrogen bonds 4) Quaritary - 2+ polypeptide chains |
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With time, what happens to structures of protein?
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With time, many structures of proteins will cross-link with similar or different proteins, this will lead to an alteration in the protein's shape resulting in a change of function.
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Example of collagen protein and aging?
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As we get older, the collagen protein will cross-link. This protein's function will change, making the collagen level to decrease and leading to the development of arthritis.
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Theory of Aging: Free Radical Theory ; What is it? And who was it developed by? And specifically, What are free radicals?
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Developed by Harmans 1956. Diseases such as cardiovascular disease are caused by damage done to tissues by free radicals. Free radicals are elements containing unpaired electrons causing these elements to be highly reactive. They damage healthy molecules.
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what is one of the most potent producers of free radicals leading to formation of superoxides?
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oxygen
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What is an example of a highly-damaging free radical
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superoxide hydroxyl
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What is superoxide dismutase
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a class of enzymes that catalyzes the disputation of superoxides into hydrogen peroxide
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Catalase and Peroxidase are found where? And what do they do?
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They are in all living organisms exposed to oxygen. They de-compose hydrogen peroxide into water
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As we age, what happens to superoxide dismutase?
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As we age, superoxide dismutase decreases in availability, therefore, we cannot get rid of as many free radicals
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Accumulation of free radicals can lead to what two things?
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1) lipofuschin- lipid containing residues
2) amyloiods - build up of insoluble proteins (Alzheimer's) These two things block cell function with age. |
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Theory of Aging: Cellular Garbage Theory
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Throughout many years, waste accumulates in cells. Accumulation of waste in cells can overwhelm them causing distraction.
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Theory of Aging: Auto-Immune Theory; What is it, and who developed it
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Developed by Walford;
As we get older, there's an increase in the incidence of auto-immune disease. Over 95% of T cells are destroyed through apoptosis because they cannot decipher self- from non-self cells because MHC gene mutates with age. |
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What is the most common auto-immune disease?
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Type 1 Diabetes
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Who has a greater risk of developing auto-immune diseases?
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females
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What is Sjogren's Syndrome?
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fatigue, dry mouth/eyes
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What is Hashimoto?
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hypo-thyroid
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What is Graves?
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hyper-thyroid
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What part of the body does Systematic Lupus Erythematosis affect?
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can affect any part of the body
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What is Good pastures syndrome?
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Kidneys and lungs shut down
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Theory of Aging: Caloric Restriction Theory
- teacher does not agree with |
If you can calorically restrict Without causing malnutrition, then we could live longer. Caloric intake should be cut 60% by ad-libing 1,200-1,300 calories per day. This is most effective if done right from birth.
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Theory of Aging: Slow Virus Theory
- teacher does not agree with |
Viruses infect us as a child and stay dormant until we age. As we age, our immune system becomes compromised and viruses kill us.
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Theory of Aging: Stress Theory A.K.A. Wear and Tear Theory
-teacher strongly agrees with |
Stress in humans leads to deterioration and aging. Under sressful situations, the brains secretes adrenocorticotophic Mormon (ACTH [steroid]). It will increase secretion of corticosteroids which leads to gluconeogensis (increase glucose level from non-carb. sources). This can lead to diabetes. Increase in corticosteroids (steroid production) causes a decrease in immunity therefore, tumors grow in immununcompromid patients.
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Theory of Aging: P 53 Gene Theory
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p 53 is a tumor-suppressor gene. Over 50% of tumors are due to the mutation of P 53 gene. p 53 gene encodes nuclear proteins.
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What does 21 KD do?
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It damages cell and inhibits cyclase which is a dependent kinase enzyme (CDK). If CDK is inhibited, then a damaged cannot reproduce and time is given to cell in order for it to correct itself. If cell cannot correct itself, then the P 53 gene promotes or prevents apoptosis. If P 53 gene is decreased, then damaged cells will not be inhibited and not given time to correct themselves and will continue to reproduce and when damaged cells reproduced, this leads to cancer.
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Can cells divide indefinitely?
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Some cells can, some cells cannot.
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What did Hayflick and Moorehead prove?
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That cells only have a certain life span (finite divisions).
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What is the average amont of division of a cell? and when do many cells complete all their divisions?
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50-60 divisions and many cells complete divisions by birth
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What are the only cells that have indefinite divisions?
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stem cells, cancer cells, sperm cells, ova cells
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Why do cells stop dividing?
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to help prevent from cancer
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3 qualities of cancer/stem cells:
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1) indefinite division
2) over 90% of cancer cells have telomerase (prevents telomeres from shortening) 3) with each division, telomeres do not get shorter |
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3 qualities of non-stem cells
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1) 50-60 divisions
2) No telomerase 3) with each division, telomeres get shorter |
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What does a telomere do?
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It ensures that cells get an equal amount of DNA material
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What does telomerase do?
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Prevents telomere from shortening
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What is apoptosis
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It is programmed cell-death. It is a way to get ride of cells without hurting surrounding cells/tissues because cells shrink, boil and turn into blebs. It helps prevent cancer.
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Do all cells undergo apoptosis?
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Yes
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What is Necrosis?
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It is a catastrophic way in which cells die. It is not programmed cell death, so surrounding cells and tissues get hurt.
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Which tissues would have a greater tendency for apoptosis?
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NONE of the tissues would have a greater tendency
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What did Sacher 1977 say were the two perimeters that control longevity?
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1) We have no control of our genes, so we have no control of aging.
2) We are vulnerable- We have control over our environment (food,disease,accidents; to some extent). As a whole, we have control over our vulnerability, whereas, we do not have control of our genes. |
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What is the Gombertz Equation?
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It is a calculation of or mortality rate. It compares death rate and age. It is used by life insurance companies.
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What is the Mitochondrion
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The Mitochondrion is the powerhouse of the cell. It produces ATP (energy) and regulates cellular metabolism. 95% of ATP produced here.
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What happens to Mitochondrion with age? (6 things)
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1) There are fewer mitochondrion
2) The surviving mitochondrion are fragile/break down easily 3) Their sensitivity to ATP/ADP ratio declines 4) Giant mitochondrion develop. They are abnormal because of an influx of water leading to osmotic swelling 5) there's a decrease in the cytochrome system resulting in a decrease in ATP 6) Cytochrome oxidase decreases therefore there are less electrons that will be picked up by oxygen and there is a decrease in ATP production |
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What did Rubner 1908 determine about Metabolism?
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He determined that the larger the animal, the lower the metabolic rate. Since you lose heat through the skin, larger animals have more skin & more surface area, so they lose more heat. This leads to a slower metabolic rate because the body is trying to help conserve energy since there is a greater loss of heat. If you have a slower metabolic rate, not as many free radicals will reproduce, so you live longer.
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What did Sacher and Duffy (1979) say about Free Radical Theory?
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The longer the animal the longer the life span. If the metabolic rate decreases then less oxygen is needed, so there is a decrease in production of free radicals, so you live longer.
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What is the Basal Metabolic Rate?
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The minimum amount of energy (calories) needed to sustain life at rest. It decreases with age, because you caloric intake requirements on a daily basis decrease with age.
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What happens in the Citric Acid Cycle?
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Malate De-Hydrogenase occurs which is when Malate catalyzes into Oxaloacetate
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What is the level of Malate De-Hyrdrogense?
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AT rest, There is no change in the availability when at rest. ON exertion, there is an increase in the availability during aerobic exercise.
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What is the level of Malate De-Hyrdrogenase with aging?
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AT rest, there is no change in the availability, ON exertion, there is no change in the availability during aerobic exercise.
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What is Creatine Kinase( CK ):
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It catalyzes creatine and consumes ATP.
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When young individuals exercise, what happens to the creatine kinase? Older individuals?
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There is an increase in creatine kinase activity with younger individuals. There is a decrease in creatine kinase with older individuals.
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What is Rhabdomyolysis?
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It can cause muscle break down.
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Energy comes from what three sources and what are percentages?
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Carbs. (67%), Lipids (14%), Proteins (19%)
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Carbohydrates: What is one type?
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Monosaccharides - from glucose and frutose
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Carbohydrates: What is a second type?
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Disaccharide's - from sucrose and lactose
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Carbohydrates: What is a third type?
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Polysaccharides - Store energy through glycogen and starch
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What is glycogen?
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storage form of glucose that is found in liver and red & white muscle fibers in skeletal muscle
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Carbohydrates : What is a fourth type?
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Oligosaccharides: found on plasma membrane of cells.
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How many carb kcal stored?
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1,000-2,000 kcal of carb energy reserved. We can go a while without eating because of so much storage.
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What happens to carb. utilization with aging?
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With again, carb. utilization is impaired.
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Adiposity is what?
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increase in adipose tissues ( fat tissues). When you have an increase in fat, you have impaired insulin sensitivity and glucose won't be used properly, which can lead to type 2 diabetes.
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Type 2 Diabetes
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Type 2 Diabetes means that you are insulin resistant. You still have insulin, but pancreas cannot keep up with demand, so there's an increase.
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How is type 2 Diabetes diagnosed?
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Diagnosed when a patient has a:
-fasting glucose: greater than 126 mg.dL -random plasma glucose: greater than 200 mg.dL - 2 Hour-Post Glucose Loading (75 mg) Plasma Glucose: >200 mg.dL [pregnant woman]. |
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What is Hemoglobin HG A 1C?
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The average in which blood sugar has been running for the past 3 months. Better test than the others, because those are a 1-times test of sugar.
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What are 5 things that can happen with diabetes?
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1) Neuropathy (numbness in feet)
2) Retinopathy (loss of vision) 3) Diabetic ulcers 4) Impotence ( not able to achieve erection) 5) Gum disease |
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65% of patients that die from diabetes also die from what 2 things?
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heart complications and strokes
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Diabetes is the #1 causes of what 2 things
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renal failures, and lower limb amputations
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how many people world-wide have diabetes, and where is the diabetes capitol of the world
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246 million people world-wide have diabetes, and India is the world capitol (40 million) because of Indian diet.
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90% of people with type 2 diabetes are considered what
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obese
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what is the prevalence of people with diabetes in CT? and who has a higher incidence of it?
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6.2% Black adults & residents with income below-poverty-level
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What are the 5 classes of lipids?
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1) Steroids, 2) Glycoproteins, 3) Triglycerides, 4) Prostaglandins, 5) Lipoproteins
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What happens to triglycerides?
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They are broken down into fatty-acids, and used to make energy. We need them , but not an overwhelming abundance of them. 100,000-200,000 kcal of triglycerides are on reserve in our bodies.
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What is free-fat-mass?
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Weight of the body with non-components only like bones and organs.
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Free fat mass typically peaks at what age for men and women.
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Fat free mass typically peaks by 20 year old for males and 50 year old for females.
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Of the Lipoprotein classes: what is High Density Lipoprotein (HDL)?
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Good cholesterol, cardio-protective effect, the higher the number, the better. We want it above 40.
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Of the Lipoprotein classes: what is the Intermediate Density Lipoprotein (IDL)?
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Not significant - don't care about #
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Of the Lipoprotein classes: what is the Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL)?
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Bad cholesterol, the lower the number, the better. Want number below 130.
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Of the Lipoprotein classes: What is the Very Low Density Lipoprotein (VLDL)?
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wanted below 30.
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What is Chylomicron
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It transports dietary lips from the intestines to other parts of the body.
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What happens to Lipoproteins with age?
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HDL decreases until someone reachers their 70's, and then it begins to increase. LDL increases until someone reaches their 70's, then it begins to decrease.
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What are two things than can be done to lower cholesterol?
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1)Statins (cholestrol-lowering drugs) can lower the LDL.
2) Aerobic exercise to increase HDL/ |
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At any given time, how many proteins can you have stored?
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25,000 kcal stores.
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What are the functions of proteins?
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structures, carriers, enzymes, hormones, receptors, immunoglobulins
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With aging what happens to protein content?
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With age, protein content decreases by 1/3. There is a decrease in protein synthesis, and an increase in proteins degradation.
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The skin is what two things?
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The skin is an organ and NOT a tissue and it is the most complex organ in the body.
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How much of the body does the skin cover, and how much does it weight?
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it covers approx 3,000 sq. inches and weighs approxi 6 pounds.
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What are 4 characteristics of the skin?
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1) very resilient (tough)
2) almost waterproof 3) self-regenerating 4) receives 1/3 of body's blood supply |
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What are the 3 main layers of the skin?
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1) Epidermis
2) Dermis 3) Subcutaneous Tissue |
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3 qualities of epidermis layer?
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1) outermost layer
2) is continuously shedding 3) no blood vessels and no nerve endings |
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The subcutaneous layer of skin is mainly what?
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fat
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What is considered "true skin"
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the dermis
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Layers of the epidermis: Layer 1
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Stratum Corneum = outermost layer of epidermis, dead cells that continuously shed, UNABLE to undergo mitosis
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Layers of the epidermis: Layer 2
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Stratum Lucidum = approx 2 cells thick, super thin, living cells on verge of dying, UNABLE to undergo mitosis
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Layers of the epidermis: Layer 3
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Stratum Granulosum = granular layer, 3-4 cells thick, tight junctions, keratinocytes
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What are tight junctions?
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Two adjacent cells that adhere to form a barrier which helps to prevent bacteria from getting through
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What are keratinocytes?
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They migrate from underlying layer and become granular cells which help to form barrier.
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Layers of the Epidermis layer 4:
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Stratum Spinosum = contain keratinocytes, Keratinzation begins here, langerhan cells here
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What is keratinzation?
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It gives cells their structure
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What are langerhan cells?
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they are dendritic cells that are apart of the immune cells. These cells have sutopods that extend to the upper layer and will pick up micros that get though. If a micro gets through and the langerhan cells pick it up, these cells will initiate an immune response by alerting the body to send help to this area (ex. inflammation , like a hang nail turning red and tender)
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Levels of the Epidermis: Level 5
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Stratum Germinativum = AKA Stratum Basale. * Only layer that undergoes mitosis.
This layer is considered the regenerative layer. COntains melanocytes. |
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What are melanocytes?
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They contain melanin which give cell pigment (freckles have increase amount of melanin)
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When the epidermis ages, what happens in the Granulosum layer?
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There's a decrease in adhesion proteins, so there is not a good barrier leading to an increase in bacterial invasion.
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When the epidermis ages, what happens in the Germinative layer?
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There's a decrease in melanin by 8-10%, and lentigines form
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What are lentigines?
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Melanin is not evenly distributed, so pigment increases. In a freckle, there is an increase of melanin in melanocyte but melanin is evenly distributed among cells. With aging, there's a decreases in melanin, so the melanin will clump together and increase the appearance of pigmentation and lentigines will form.
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What happens to stem cells as the epidermis ages?
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There's a decrease in stem cells, so there's a decrease in cell regeneration.
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The dermis (layer 2 of skin) is made up of what?
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Connective tissue
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What are the two types of connective tissue in the dermis?
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1) yellow elastic
2) white collagen |
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What is yellow elastic?
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it is bundles of elastin. Elastin gives our skin and our blood vessel its elasticity.
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What is white collagen?
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It is dense, in-elastic connective tissue. IT IS THE MOST COMMON PROTEIN IN BODY. It accounts for 1/3 of proteins in body.
It has a rapid turnover rate. It is recongized because of its shape. It is SOLUBLE. And it is broken down by an enzyme called collaginase. |
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What is Collaginase?
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Collaginase is an enzyme that breaks down white collagen. In order for collaginase to recognize the collagen in order to break it down, it HAS to be soluble.
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With aging, What happens to yellow elastic?
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Fibro-blasts shrink. Elastin decrease because fibro-blasts produce elastin
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With aging, What happens to Collagen?
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It is less soluble, it is stiffer, collaginase does not recognize it, so it cannot break it down properly leading to it's shape/function changing.
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What are Eccrine Sweat Glands?
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They extend to the surface of the skin, they release sweat, there are 5 million on the skin, they are most abundant on palms and forehead, they do not cause body odor.
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What do Eccrine sweat glands have involving heat release?
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They have highly coiled tubular content that release heat.
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Are Eccrine sweat glands involved with thermal regulation?
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Yes
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What are Apocrine Sweat Glands?
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They are found in the axilla (arm pit) and pubic regions, they do produce body odor, they are under androgen control- primarily testosterone. They do not become active until puberty.
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What happens to the Eccrine sweat glands with age?
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They decrease in number and become abnormal. They have a harder time regulating body temperature.
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What happens to the Epocrine sweat glands with age?
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They increase in activity during teenage years, and once people hit 65, their activity decreases.
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What are sebaceous glands and what do they secrete?
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They secrete sebum which is grease on our skin that acts as a lubricant, they peak secretion 12-20 years old (acne). Under androgen controlThey are found everywhere on body except palms of hands and soles of feet.
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Why do we need sebum?
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If we don't have it to lubricate our skin, it will cause Pruritis which is the medical term for itchy.
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What is a hair follicle
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it is a skin organ that produces hair
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What happens to the Sebaceous glands when we age?
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There is a decrease in sebum production so there is less acne, but dryer skin causing itching.
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What happens to hair follicles when we age?
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There is an equal decrease in males in females, hair becomes thinner. There's a decrease in melanin production with age which leads to loss of color.
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Woman develop hirsutism with age..what's this?
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abnormal hair growth in places where you did not initially have it - elderly women & chin hair
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By age 90, what happen's to body hair for men and women?
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Women typically lose all body hair except on their scalp. Men lose hair first on their scalp directly related to testosterone.
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What do blood vessels do?
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They provide nourishment to the skin and remove wasted - heavily involved in thermal regulation.
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What are the 2 types of nerve endings?
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1) Capsulated = touch receptors
2) Free Nerve Endings = perception of pain |
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Nerve Endings: What is Meissner's Corpuscle?
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Capsulated nerve endings involved in light touch
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Nerve Endings: What is Pacinian's Corpuscle?
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Capsulated nerve endings involved in touch and vibration
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What happens to blood vessels with aging?
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The density of blood vessels decreases. There is a significant decreases in thermoregulation.
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What happens to nerve endings with age?
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For free nerve endings, there is no change in # but change in activity level. Ex (95 year old putting hand on hot stove have slower reaction than 15 year old)
For capsulated nerve endings there is a decrease in # and activity changes. |
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What are 5 characteristics of the subcutaneous layer?
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1)fat cells
2) highly gender specific 3)provide energy 4) circulates 1/3 of estrogen 5) responsible for wrinkling |
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What happens to the subcutaneous layer with aging?
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Adipocytes (fat cells) decrease in size but increase in #. There is a decreased capacity to hold fat, so wrinkling occurs.
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People did not become interested in the aging of skin until when?
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1980s-1990s.
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What was Tendall and Smith's experiment 1960s?
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They did an experiment to show how what is manifesting on the skin can tell what is going on internally:
They looks at 160 "healthy" adults 65+ RESULTS: 100% had benign tumors, 100% had lentigo, 100% had some kind of fungal infection primarily in the nails, 80% had seboorheic keratosis, 50% had actinic keratosis (precursor to squamecell) |
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What did Tendall and Smith's experiment prove?
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Indicated that as we age, even if the internal organs are healthy, the skin may not be healthy. It is essential that the skin is closely examined and monitored by health care providers. Evident that the skin can manifest what is going on inside the body.
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What are 5 factors that lead to aging of the skin?
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1) ethnicity
2) race 3) socio-economic status 4) climate and environment 5) availability of medical care |
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With aging of the skin itself, what happens over time?
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There's a decrease in density and ` and regressive changes in all three layers.
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What is Lentigo
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Benign, clearly defined edges, called "age spots"
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What is Acrochordon?
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Skin tags, Benign, form in skin creases, excessive collagen formation, look similar to small tumors, more common in overweight people and diabetics, typically removed only for cosmetic purposes, caused by rubbing skin as well as hormonal imbalances.
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What is Senile Pruritis?
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Excessive cracking and itching of the skin. CAused by decreased sebum. Cracking of the skin allows bacteria to enter, so chances of infection increases.
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What is Seborrheic Keratosis?
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"Barnacles". greasy growth of surface skin, wart-like, benign, have a "slapped on and pasted" appearance, typically on face/scalp.
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What is Actinic Keratosis?
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Pre-canceros, needs to be removed, most common those with pale skin, most common scalp of males, caused by son, 10% of actinic keratosis will become squemacell.
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What is Herpes Zoster?
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Shingles, cause by the varicell-zoster virus (same virus as chicken pox), viral attack on free nerve endings, very painful, tracks along dermatomes (dermatones do not cross mainline of body), so shingles will only be on one side of body. Most common site is on the trunk (back/abdomen) and second most common site is face/scale. 50% of individuals 50+ get it and it is treated with antivirals. If you gets in your eye, loss of vision.
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What are Decubitus Ulcers?
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Occur in individuals that are immobile (bed-rest) and diabetes patients. It is a break down of the skin.
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What are the 4 stages of decubitus ulcers?
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1) skin is intact fully ,becomes warm and red, boggy
2) involves break down of the epidermis and/or dermis 3) full thickness breakdown of all 3 layers of skin 4) full thickness breakdown, all way down to bone |
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What is most common type of skin cancer?
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Basal Cell Carcinoma - epidermis only, 100% curable because it can't spread because no blood vessels are there
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Squamous Cell Carcinoma
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In the epidermis and the dermis, can run a change of spreading and meta-sizing, referred to as the 'fried-egg' appearance because of white center and bordered edges
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Melanoma
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Incidence has tripled in the US in the past 20 years for Caucasions. Most deadly skin cancer. Accounts for 4% of all skin cancers and 73% of all skin-cancer related deaths.
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Kaposi Sarcoma
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Secondary skin cancer due to anotehr disease process in the body. Have to test for AIDS because Kaposi Sarcom and AIDS go hand in hand.
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What is the Tumor Suppressor Gene, P 53 Product?
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None of the above
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