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153 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the parts of the cell theory?
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1) All organisms consist of one or more cells
2) The cell is the basic unit of structure for all molecules 3) All cells arise only from preexisting cells. |
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Define micrometer
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One-millionth of a meter (10^-6)
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Define nanometer
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Used for molecules and sub-cellular units too small to be seen with a light microscope. One BILLIONTH of a meter
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Cytology
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The study of cellular structure, based primarily on microscopic techniques.
Originally depended heavily on the light microscope, now the electron microscope. OPTICAL |
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Biochemistry
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Study of chemistry of living systems; same as biological chemistry.
Most breakthroughs in past 75 years. Important techniques include ultracentrifugation, chromatofraphy, electrophoresis, and mass spectrometry for SEPARATING AND IDENTIFYING CELLULAR COMPONENTS AND MOLECULES. |
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Genetics
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Study of behavior of genes, which are the chemical units involved in teh storage and transmission of hereditary information.
Gregor Mendel, genome sequencing and cloning recent accomplishments |
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Organelle
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"Little organs" prominent features of most plant and animal BUT NOT BACTERIA cells.
Any membrane bound cellular structure that is specialized for carrying out a particular function. Eukaryotic cells contain several kinds of membrane-enclosed organelles, including the nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi complex, smooth and rough ER, lysosomes, peroxisomes, secretory vesicles, and in the case of plants, chloroplasts |
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Enzyme
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Biological catalyst; protein (or in certain cases, RNA) molecule that acts on one or more specific substrates, converting them to products with different molecular structures
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Subcellular fractionation
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Centrifugation used to separate and isolate subcelluar structures and macromolecules based on their size, shape, and or density
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Chromosome theory of heredity
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Theory stating that hereditary factors are located in the chromosomes within the nucleus
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Double Helix Model
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Two intertwined helical chains of a DNA molecule, held together by complementary base pairing between adenine (A) and thymine (T) and between cytosine (C) and guanine (G)
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Recombinant DNA Technology
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Group of laboratory techniques for joining DNA fragments derived from two or more sources
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DNA Sequencing
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Technology used determine the linear order of bases in DNA molecules or fragments
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Bioinformatics
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Using computers to analyze the vast amounts of data generated by sequencing and expression studies on genomes and proteomes
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Carbon atom
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The most important atom in biological molecules, capable of forming up to four covalent bonds
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Valence
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A number indicating the number of other atoms that a given atom can combine with
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Covalent Bond
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Strong chemical bond in which two atoms share two or more electrons
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Single Bond
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Chemical bond formed between two atoms as a result of sharing a pair of electrons
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Triple Bond
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Chemical bond forme3d between two atoms as a result of sharing three pairs of electrons
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Double bond
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Chemical bond formed between two atoms as a result of sharing of two pairs of electrons
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Bond energy
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Amount of energy required to break one mole of a particular chemical bond
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Calorie
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Unit of energy; amount of energy needed to raise the T of 1 gm of water 1 degree C
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Hydrocarbons
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An organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen atoms; not generally compatible with living cells
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Functional groups
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Group of chemical elements covalently bonded to each other that confers characteristic chemical properties upon any molecule to which it is covalently linked
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Tetrahedral
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An atom of carbon from which four single bonds extend to other atoms, each bond equidistant from all other bonds, causing the atom to resemble a tetrahedron with its four equal faces
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Sterioiosomers
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Two molecules that have the same structural formula but are not superimposable; stereoisomers are mirror images of each other
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Asymmetric Carbon Atom
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Carbon atom that has four different substituents. Two different sterioisomers are possible for each asymmetiric carbon atom in an organic molecule
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Polarity
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Property of a molecule that results from part of the molecule having a partial positive charge and another part having partial negative charge, usually because one region of the molecule possesses one or more electronegative atoms that draw toward that region
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Hydrogen bond
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Weak attractive interaction between an electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom that is covalently linked to a second electronegative atom
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Specific Heat
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Amount of heat needed to raise the T of 1 gram of a substance 1 degree C
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Solvent
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Substance, usually liquid, in which other substances are dissolved, forming a solution
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Solute
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Substance that is dissolved in a solvent, forming a solution
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Hydrophilic
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Describing molecules or regions of molecules that readily associate with or dissolve in water because of preponderance of polar groups, "water loving"
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Hydrophobic
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Describing molecules or regions of molecules that are poorly soluble in water because of a preponderdance of polar groups; "water hating"
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Mebrane
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Permeability barrier surrounding and delineating cells and organelles; consists of a lipid bilayer with associated proteins
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Amphipathic molecules
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Molecule having spatially separated hydrphilic and hydrophobic regions
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Lipid bilayer
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Unit of membrane structure, consisting of two layers of lipid molefules, mainly phospholipid, arranged so that their hydrophobic tials face twoard each other and the polar region of each faces the aqueous environment on one side or the other of the bilayer
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Macromolecules
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Polymer built from small repeating monomer units, with molecular weights ranging from a few thousand to hundreds of millions
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Schleiden and Schwann
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Worked together to find the fundamental units of life, cells were individual working living entities.
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Virchow
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Cell division
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Loeb
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Discovered that lifeless chemicals can create natural life sequences. Fertilized female urchin eggs with chemicals which acted as though they had been fertilized by real sperm.
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Self-Assembly
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The phenomenon by which certain kinds of molecules automatically link with one another to form larger structures
Ex. Tubulin dimers to microtuble |
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Figure 1.5a Microtubles
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Tublin dimers self assemble to form microtules IF CONDITIONS ARE RIGHT
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Receptor
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A protein embedded in a membrane with a shape that can bind a free molecule with a complenentary shape. In response, the receptor may initiate some process within the cell or may bring the free molecule into the cell
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Figure 2.2 Rensberger
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Draw receptor. Receptors stud the outer membranes of cells and the membranes of many internal organelles. When a signal molecule of the proper shape binds to the docking site, the par tof the receptor inside the cell responds, typically by changing its own shape to activate some process inside the cell
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Molecular motor
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Any of several kinds of proteins that can use the energy in ATP to propel themselves along a filament or across another molecule
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Figure 2.4 Rensberger
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Draw motor molecule on microtuble
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Cytoplasm
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A general term for all of the components of a cell other than the nucleus
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Microtuble
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One of three kinds of cytoskeleton. During cell division, microtrubles act as spindle fibers, helping to separate duplicated chromosomes. At other times, they form tracks for transporting molecules throughout the cytoplasm. Each microtuble is a polymer of tubulin molecules
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Kinesin
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A motor molecule that transports vesicles of cargo along microtruble tracks. It moves in a direction opposite to that of dynein
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Dynein
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One of several motor molecules that transport objects inside cells. Moves in the direction opposite of kinesin.
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Vesicle
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Literally "small vessel" A small membrane bounded structure that may enclose a cargo of molecules. Vesicles are tiny containers of cargo being transported within a cell
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Vesicle fusion
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DRAW FIGURE 2.5
Fusion of vesicle membrane with cell membrane |
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Cytoskeleton
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A catchall term for various kinds of filamentous networks inside cells. They include actin, microtubules, and so called intermediate filaments. They give the cell shape and the capacity to crawl and also serve as tracks for internal transport of vesicles and other organelles
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Actin
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One of the two main kinds of protein filaments that make up muscle and the parts of cells that generate movement. Myosin molecules pull on actin to generate motion. Actin filaments are polymers of subunits also called actin
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Myosin
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One of the two main protein filaments of muscle cells. Myosins pull on actin filaments to make muscles contract. In other cells, myosin also pulls on an actin meshwork to change the cell's shape and cause it to crawl.
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Tubulin
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Subunit of a microtuble.
SELF ASSEMBLY |
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Nucleus
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The largest organelle in a cell, contains the chromosomes plus the nucleolus
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Plasma membrane
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The outer membrane enclosing a cell
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Clathrin-coated pit
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Clatharin is a protein that links up with others of its kind to form a cagelike structure that forces the cell's outer membrane to form a pit into the cell. The molecules ultimately cause the pit to close into a bubblelike vesicle containing substances that the cell takes in
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Lysosome
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The cell's stomach. Contains digestive enzyme that break down large molecules taken in by the cell and worn-out organelles being recycled. A cell has many lysosomes.
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DNA
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The name of the chemical of which chromosomes are made, Chain of subunits (called nucleotides... made up of sugar, base, and phosphate group) that repeat indefinitely
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RNA
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Similar to DNA but has a OH group on Carbon 2 at the 3' end of the chain
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Fatty acids
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Long unbranched hydrocarbon chains that have a carboxyl group at one end that makes it antipathic. Contains even number of C atoms and have varying degrees of unsaturation
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Proteins
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Macromolecule that consists of one or more polypeptides folded into a conformation specified by the linear sequence (primary) of amino acids. Proteins play importantroels as enzymes, structural proteins, motility proteins
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Amino Acids
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Monomeric units of proteins consisting of carboxylic acid with an amino group and one of a variety of R groups attached to the alpha carbon, 20 different kinds of amino acids are normally found in proteins
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Endosome
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Membrane bound organelle or vesicle that transports materials ingested by the cell (via endocytosis) to a lysosome for digestion
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Sodium Potassium Pump
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Must use energy to push 3 Na molecules out, and bring the desired 2 K molecules in. Concentration of Na is higher outside of cell and therefore the pump is DOING WORK to push the Na against the concentration gradient
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Glucose
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Six carbon sugar that is widely used as the starting molecule in cellular energy metabolism.
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Pyruvate
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A three carbon chain with three H and three O. Energy from the "digested food" taken into the MITOCHONDRIA
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Mitochondria
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The organelle that packages the energy in food into ATP, the universal energy carrying molecule in cells. Every cell has MANY mitochondria
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ATP
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The universal energy carrying molecule of cells. Made in mitochondria with the energy obtained from food and sent to all other parts of the cell. Energy is released when one phosphate is removed leaving ADP
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Endosymbiosis
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Theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts arose from ancient bacteria that were ingested by ancient eurkaryotic cells that formed a symbiotic relationship.
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ADP
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Product of ATP use. ATP molecule after the loss of one P group
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Autophagy
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Intercellular digestion of old or unwanted organelle or other cell structures. Occurs with autophagic lysosomes
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Genetic disease
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Diseases caused by a defective gene that lead cells to make misshapen proteins that cannot do their job or to not make protein at all
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Hemoglobin
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A complex of four proteins, two alpha and two beta hemoglobin that picks up oxygen in the lungs and releases it other tissues. Carried inside red blood cells
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Structural protein
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Support of cellular structures. Examples include collagen, keratin
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Motility protein
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Movement of cells and cell parts. Example actin and myosin
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Regulatory proteins
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Regulation of cell functions. Example: transcription factors that bind DNA and regulate gene expression
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Transport proteins
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Transport of substances across membranes. Example, glucose transporters and ion channels in membranes
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Hormonal proteins
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Communication between distant parts of the body. Example insulin secreted by the pancreas.
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Receptor proteins
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Response of cells to chemical stimuli. Example of nerve cell membranes sensing chemical signals from other membranes
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Defensive proteins
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Protect against disease. Antibodies in the blood that destroy microorganisms
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Storage proteins
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Store and release amino acids. Example is seed proteins broken down during germination to provide nutrients
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Enzyme
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Any protein whose job it is to facilitate a chemical process. Enzymes make chemical reactions happen, or happen faster, but are not consumed in the process.
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Chromosome
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A very long strand made up of chemicals called DNA and its associated proteins. Made up of four types of units (nucleotides) whose sequence encodes all hereditary information for the cell.
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Gene
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A length of DNA that contains the complete code for guiding the synthesis of one protein or an RNA molecule
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Sex determining chromosome
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Males have Y women have X
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Double helix
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The name of the shape of DNA when it is in the usual double stranded form. the rails of spiral staircase form a double helix.
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DNA Bases
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Adenine - Thymine
Cytosine - Guanine Purines: A, G BIG Pyrimidines: T, C SMALL |
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Codon
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A group f three nucleotides (three bases) that specify one of the twenty kinds of amino acids to be linked to make a protein
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Universal genetic code
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All living cells use essentially the same code. Minor exceptions in which the code for certain amino acids in some organisms differ... but discovery dramatically confirms Darwinian view of evolution. COMMON ANCESTOR
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Regulatory DNA
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DNA that codes for something, not the "junk" DNA
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RNA Polymerase
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The enzyme that reads the DNA code for a protein and assembles a molecule of mRNA carrying a transcription of the code
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mRNA
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Messenger RNA, the RNA molecule containing the information that specifies the amino acid sequence of one or more polypeptides
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Repressor Protein
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Regulatory transcription factor whose binding to DNA control elements leads to a reduction in the transcription rate of nearby genes
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Activator protein
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Regulatory protein whose binding to DNA leads to an increase in the transcription rate of specific nearby genes
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RNA
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Nucleic acid that plays several different roles in the expression of genetic information,constructed from nucleotides consisting of ribose phosphate linked to adenine URACIL cytosine or guanine
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Intron
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INtervening segments of noncoding DNA in genes. The other parts are called exons
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Ribosome
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The small organelle composed of fRNA and protein that reads the code in messenger RNA and follows its instructions to assemble a chain of amino acids that will become a protein. Found in the chloroplasts, mitochondria, and cytoplasm
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tRNA
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Family of small RNA molecules, each binding a specific amino acid and possessing an anticodon that recognizes a specific codon in mRNA
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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A vast convoluted structure where newly made proteins are chemically modified. Also called the ER, enclosed by a membrane
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Golgi Complex
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Stacks of flattened, disk shaped membrane cisternae in eukaryotic cells that are important in the processing and packaging of secretory proteins and in the synthesis of complex polysaccarides
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Monomers
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Small organic molecule that serves as a subunit in the assembly of a macromolecule
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Informational macromolecules
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Polymer of nonidentical subunits ordered in a nonrandom sequence that stores and transmits information important to the function or utilization of the macromolecule; DNA and RNA are informational macromolecules
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Storage Macromolecules
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Polymer that consists of one or a few kinds of subunits in no specific order and that serves as a storage form of nonosaccharides, examples include starch and glycogen
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Structural macromolecules
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Polymer that consists of one or a few kinds of subunits in no specific order and that provides structure and mechanical strength to the cell; examples include cellulose and pectin
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Condensation Reaction
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Chemical reaction that results in the joining of two molecules by the removal of a water molecule
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Activated monomer
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A monomer whose free energy has been increased by being linked to a carrier molecule
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Carrier Molecule
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A molecule that joins to a monomer, thereby activating the monomer for a subsequent reaction
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Directionality
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Having two ends that are chemically different from each other; used to describe a polymer chain such as a protein, nucleic acid, or carbohydrate; also used to describe membrane transport systems that selectively transport solutes across a membrane in one direction
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Hydrolysis
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Reaction in which a chemical bond is broken by the addition of a water molecule
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Self-Assembly
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Principle that the information required to specify the folding of macromolecules and their interactions to form more complicated structures with specific biological functions is inherent in the polymers themselves
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Polypeptide
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Linear chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
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Denaturation
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Loss of the natural three dimensional structure of a macromolecule usually resulting in a loss of its biological activity; caused by agents such as heat, extremes of pH, urea, salt, and other chemicals
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Renaturation
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Return of a protein from a denatured state to the native conformation determined by its amino acid sequence, usually accompanied by restoration of physiological functions
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Molecular Chaperones
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A protein that facilitates the folding of other proteins but is not a component of the final folded structures
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Assisted Self-Assembly
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Folding and assembly of proteins and protein containing structures in which the appropriate molecular chaperone is required to ensure that correct assembly will predominate over incorrect assembly
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Noncovalent Bonds and Interactions
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Binding forces that do not involved the sharing of electrons; examples include IONIC BONDS, VAN DER WAALS, HYDROGEN BONDS, and HYDROPHOBIC INTERACTIONS
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Hierarchical Assembly
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Synthesis of biological structures from simple starting molecules to progressively more complex structures, usually by self assembly
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Prokaryotes
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Category of organisms characterized by the absence of true nucleus and other membrane bounded organelles; includes bateria and archea
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Eukaryotes
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One of the three domains of organisms, the domain consisting of one celled and multicellular organisms called eukaryotes whose cells are characterized by a membrane bounded nucleus and other membrane bounded organelles
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Bacteria
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One of the two groups of prokaryotes, include most of the commonly encountered single celled organisms with no nucleus that have traditionally been called bacteria
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Archea
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One of the two groups of prokaryotes, many thrive under harsh conditions such as salty, acidic, or hot environments that would be fatal to most other organisms
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Surface Area/Volume Ratio
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Mathematical ration of the surgace area of a cell to its volume; decreases with increasing linear dimension of the cell (length or radius) thereby increasing the difficult of maintaining adequate surface area for nutrients and export of waste products as a cell size increases
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Diffusion
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Free, unassisted movement of a solute with direction and rate dictated by the difference in solute concentration between two different regions
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Cytoplasmic Streaming
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Movement of the cytoplasm driven by interactions between actin filaments and specific types of myosin, called cyclosis in plants
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Chromosomes
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In eukaryotes a single DNA molecule complexed with histones and other proteins that becomes condensed into a compact structure at the time of mitosis or meiosis
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Cell Wall function
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Structure and protection of the individual cells
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Chloroplast function
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Site of photosynthesis in plants and algae. Reduce CO2 to sugar molecules, site of ribosomes, reduce nitrogen from the oxidation level of soil derived nitrate ions to ammonia, and catalyze reduction of sulfate ions to hydrogen sulfide.
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Cytoskeleton
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Structure and transportation for molecules within the cell.
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Smooth ER function
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Involved with the synthesis of lipids and steroids such as cholesterol and the steroid hormones derived from it. Responsible for inactivating and detoxifying drugs such as barbiturates
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Golgi Complex Function
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Processes and packages secretory proteins and synthesizes complex polysaccharides
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Lysosome function
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Used for storing hydrolases, enzymes that digest specific biological molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Lysosomes can break down virtually any kind of biological molecule
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Mitochondrion function
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Site of aerobic respiration. Oxidation of sugars and other cellular fuel molecules to carbon dioxide extracts energy from food molecules and conserves it as ATP
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Nucleus function
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Contains DNA bearing chromosomes
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Peroxisome function
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Generating and degrading hydrogen peroxide
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Plasma Membrane Function
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Defines boundary of the cell and ensures that its contents are retained
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Ribosome Function
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Responsible for protein synthesis
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Energy
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Capacity to do work; ability to cause specific changes
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Biosynthesis
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Generation of new molecules through a series of chemical reactions within the cell
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Mechanical Work
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Use of energy to bring about a physical change in the position or orientation of a cell or some part of it
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Concentration work
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Use of energy to transport ions or molecules across a membrane against an electrochemcial or concentration gradient
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Electrical work
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Use of energy to transport ions across a membrane against a potential gradient
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Bioluminescence
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Production of light by an organism as a result of the reaction of ATP with specific luminescent compounds
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Phototrophs
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Organism that is capable of utilizing the radiant energy of the sun to satisfy its energy requirements
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Chemotrophs
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Organism that is dependent on the bond energies of organic molecules such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to satisfy energy requirements
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Thermodynamics
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Area of science that deals with the laws governing the energy transactions that accompany all physical processes and chemical reactions
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Bioenergetics
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Area of science that deals with the application of the thermodynamic principles to reaction and processes in the biological world
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System
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The restricted portion of the universe that one decides to study at any given time when investigating the principles that govern the distribution of energy
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Surroundings
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the remainder of the universe when one is studying the distribution of energy within a given system
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State
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Condition of a system defined by various properties, such as temperature, pressure, and volume
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