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134 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is neuroscience?
1. the study of anatomy/structures of the nervous system

2. the study of physiological processes/functions of the nervous system
What did Paul Broca (1862) do?
discovered part of brain that controls speech production (Tan and Lelo) (Broca's Aphasia) "I broca my larynx and now I can't speak."
What did Carl Wernicke (1874) do?
discovered part of brain that controls speech comprehension. (Wernicke's aphasia) "Wernicke is worried that he can't understand your words."
What brain imaging techniques do people use now to study brain tissue?
1. static and functional MRI
2. PET scans
3. other dynamic imaging techniques
Why are we seeing more brain lesion cases?
1. technical advances prolong and increase life span
2. medicine is reducing impact of strokes
3. patients with degenerative motor diseases and craniofacial malformations are more treatable
4. TBI from wars
What is the neuraxis?
1. long axis through brain and spinal cord
2. horizontal from frontal lobe to occipital lobe
3. it is somewhat t-shaped
What are the directional terms for the brain?
1. rostral (frontal lobe) to caudal (occipital lobe)

2. dorsal (top of brain) to ventral (base of skull at foramen magnum
Explain the anatomical planes for brain sections.
1. sagittal (vertical) - right and left parts
2. coronal (vertical) - front and back parts
3. horizontal (cross) - uppper and lower parts
4. transverse - diagonal cross section (aka axial) - at an angle from the horizontal plane
What are the terms relating to movement?
1. flexion - arm/hand curls toward the body
2. extension - arm/hand unfurls away from the body
3. abduction - legs spreading apart
4. adduction - legs pulling together
5. pronation - arm rotating upward
6. supination - arm rotating downward
What kinds of matter comprise nervous tissue?
1. gray matter - mostly unmyelinated
2. white matter - mostly myelinated
What is the somatotopic organization of motor output?
cortex to the periphery
What is Grey Matter comprised of?
1. neuron cell bodies
2. dendrites
3. axons & axon terminals (boutons)
4. glia
What is glia?
They are the non-neural supporting cells of CNS. Schwann cells (neurolemma) of PNS. They lay down myelin around the neurons, but they are NOT nerve cells
What is white matter?
Is is bundles of (mostly) myelinated axons - they are rich in lipids.fatty tissue; the myelin give the white matter its white color
What are the names of various nerve cell bodies?
1. nucleus- collection of nerve cell bodies in CNS
2. ganglion - collection of nerve cell bodies outside CNS
3. lamina - laminae of the spinal cord
4. corpora (body) - corpora quadrigemina
5. cortex - cerebral cortex, cerebellar cortex
6. formation - reticular formation
7. horn - ventral (motor) and posterior (sensory) horns in SC
What are some names for bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS?
1. tract (pyramidal tract)
2. fasciculus (arcuate fasciculus)
3. brachium (brachium pontis)
4. peduncle (as in cerebral peduncles)
5. capsule (internal capsule)
6. column (as in dorsal column)
7. lemniscus (medial lemniscus)
8. commissure - anterior commisure
9. ansa - ansa lenticularis
What does the arcuate fasciculus do?
it connects Wernicke and Broca's area - problems here are called 'conduction aphasia'
What is a decussation?
a 'crossing'
Are spinal nerves part of the PNS or CNS?
PNS
What is special about the basal ganglia?
They are part of the CNS. All other ganglia are part of the PNS
What happens at the decussation of the pyramids in lower brain stem/medulla?
90% of pyramidal tract fibers cross over to the other side
What does the arcuate fasciculus do?
it connects Wernicke and Broca's area - problems here are called 'conduction aphasia'
What is a decussation?
a 'crossing'
Are spinal nerves part of the PNS or CNS?
PNS
What is special about the basal ganglia?
They are part of the CNS. All other ganglia are part of the PNS
What happens at the decussation of the pyramids in lower brain stem/medulla?
90% of pyramidal tract fibers cross over to the other side
What is the somatotopic organization of sensory input?
periphery to the cortex
Where is the brain's body periphery mapped onto?
1. cerebral cortex
2. cerebellar cortex
Define the following terms:

1. contralateral
2. ipsilateral
3. bilateral
4. unilateral
1. contralateral - opposite side
2. ipsilateral - same side
3. bilateral - both sides
4. unilateral - one side
What is the CNS comprised of?
1. brain
2. brain stem
3. spinal cord
Where is the cerebellum?
It hangs off the back of the brain stem and tucks under hemisphere
What comprises the PNS?
All neural structures outside the CNS

Cranial nerves & Spinal Nerves with their ganglia

Cranial nerves to and from the brainstem

spinal nerves to and from the spinal cord
Why are cranial nerves considered PNS?
Cranial nerves have cell bodies in CNS but since axons leave spine and brain, they are PNS
What are the two divisions of the PNS?
1. ANS - Autonomic Nervous system - viscera and organs

3. SNS - Somatic Nervous System - sensory and motor
What does 'soma' mean?
Body
What is the Somatic Nervous System responsible for?
1. conscious and unconscious sensory data
2. voluntary behavior/movements
What does the Autonomic Nervous System do?
1. innervates the viscera
2. mediates the smooth & involuntary muscles
What are the divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
1. sympathetic
2. parasympathetic
What are the four main functions of the nervous system?
1. sensor - responds to sensory data
2. motor- effector, creates behavior
3. regulator- brainstem, involuntary activities
4. integrator - synthesizes, analyzes, plans
What are the gross structures of the CNS?
1. cerebral hemispheres and cortex - cerebrum
2. basal ganglia - within the hemisphere - suppresses unwanted movements - damage causes a release of inhibitions and tremor like in Parkinson's
3. diencephalon - thalamus & hypothalamus
4. midbrain - the most rostral part of the brainstem
5. pons and cerebellum
6. medulla - 'bulb'
What is the spinal cord and where does it begin?
it is an extension of the brainstem. it begins at the foramen magnum.
How many brain vessicles are there?
3 primary brain vessicles
At at 7 weeks gestation, have all the brain subdivisions emerged
yes
What does encephalon mean?
brain
What are the three primary brain vessicles?
1. prosencephalon - forebrain
2. mesencephalon - midbrain
3. rhombencephalon - hindbrain (oldest part of the brain)
What are the five brain divisions in the three vessicles?
PART OF PROSENCEPHALON
1. telencephalon - cerebral hemispheres, cortex, basal ganglia
2. diencephalon - thalamus and hypothalamus
PART OF MESENCEPHALON
3. mesencephalon - midbrain structures
PART OF RHOMBENCEPHALON
4. metencephalon - pons & cerebellum
5. myelencephalon - medulla
What are the five lobes of the brain?
1. frontal
2. parietal
3. temporal
4. occipital
5. limbic
6. (insula)
Why is there a dispute over whether the insula is a lobe or not?
For some, it is just considered 'connected fibers', not an autonomous lobe
Where in the cranium are the different lobes housed?
1. frontal lobe - anterior fossa
2. temporal lobe - middle fossa (with parietal lobe on top)
3. occipital lobe - posterior fossa (with pons, cerebellum and medulla)
Where do the cranial nerves leave the brain?
through the various foramen - remember, they are part of the PNS
What is that big hole in the skull?
Foramen magnum?
What part of the cranial nerves leave the brain stem?
The axons
What is the nickname for the cerebral cortex?
Gray matter (it is a collection of cell bodies - if follows every gyrus and fissure, so you don't see most of it)
What is another name for 'gyrus'?
Convolution (elevation)
What is another name for 'fissure'?
Sulcus (depression)
What are the two sections of the cerebral cortex?
1. neocortex - which covers the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital and insular lobes (90% of cortex)

2. allocortex - limbic lobe structures, olfactory cortex (10% of cortex) - it is phylogenetically older than the neocortex
How thick is the neocortex?
It is a thin covering 4-6 mm thick.
How many layers are in the neocortex?
6 horizontal layers (laminae)
Are the layers oriented PARALLEL to the cortical surface?
yes
Why is the neocortex also divided into vertical columns?
They are divided by FUNCTION.
What is the span of the vertical columns?
From the cortical surface to the underlying white matter.
What is the function of the Giant cells of Betz?
voluntary motor function
How many neurons are in the cerebral cortex?
100 billion
How many different cell types are there in the cerebral cortex?
5 - each with different functions
What is the most common cell type in the cerebral cortex?
pyramidal neurons of various sizes
What does afferent mean? What does efferent mean?
afferent = sensory

efferent = motor
What do the vertical columns do?
1. receive affererents (sensory info) from other cortical areas and from the thalamus

2. send efferents (motor info) to columns in the same hemisphere (association), cortical areas on the opposite hemisphere (commissural) and subcortical nuclei of cerebrum, brainstem, spinal cord (motor projection)
What is it called when efferents are sent to columns in the same hemisphere?
association
What is it called when efferents are sent to cortical areas in the opposite hemisphere?
commissural
What is called when efferents are sent to the subcortical nuclei of the cerebrum, brainstem, and spinal cord?
motor projection
What is the total area of the cerebral cortex?
about 2.5 feet
What percentage of the cerebral cortex is visible from the surface?
1/3rd
What is the weight of the cerebral cortex?
600 g. (total brain weighs 1400 g / ~3 lbs)
What percentage of the total brain weight is the cerebral cortex?
40%
What is another name for the Fissure of Rolando and where is it?
central sulcus. It is a vertical division that separates the frontal from the parietal lobe.
What is another name for the Sylvian Fissure and what does it do?
lateral sulcus/fissure; it separates the temporal from the frontal and parietal lobes.
What is another name for the longitudinal fissure, and where is it?
Sagittal Fissure. It is the split between the two hemisphere
Where is the cingulate sulcus?
Deep to the cerebral cortex.
Where is the parietal-occipital sulcus?
Fissure that separates parietal from occipital lobes
Where is the calcarine sulcus?
It is in the occipital lobe, horizontally dividing it into the 2 functional areas.
Where is the limbic lobe?
It s deep to the frontal and parietal lobes.
Where is the fontal lobe?
It is anterior to the central sulcus and superior to the lateral sulcus.
Where is the occipital lobe?
It is posterior to the imaginary line parallel to the parieto-occipital (p/o) sulcus.
Where is the parietal lobe?
It is posterior to the central sulcus, anterior to the p/p line and above the lateral sulcus.
What does the limbic lobe surround?
The corpus callosum and the upper brainstem.
Where is the insula?
It is tucked into the sylvan fissure.
What are Brodmann's areas?
A way of dividing landmarks and functional areas in the brain.
What are the four prominent gyri in the frontal lobe?
1. Precentral gyrus (with primary motor cortex) - called Brodman's Area 4

2. superior frontal gyrus

3. middle frontal gyrus

4. inferior frontal gyrus
Where are the origins of the Giant Betz cells?
The primary motor cortex
What would be the effect of a legion in area 4?
Paralysis
What is Brodmann's number for Broca's area (part of 3rd frontal gyrus)?
Brodmann's area 44
What is Broca's area?
The motor speech association cortex. A person with a lesion here would have speech/praxis and programming problems - they would same word 3 or 4 different ways, but have no motor weakness.
What are the three sections of the 3rd frontal gyrus?
1. operacular
2. triangular
3. orbital

(Broca's area includes opercular and triangular)
The operculum contains parts of what three lobes?
frontal, parietal and temporal
What is the difference between SENSORY primary and association cortical areas?
1. primary receives data

2. association interprets data
What is the difference between MOTOR primary and association cortical areas?
1. primary provides the command to move

2. association provides a movement plan, schema
Motor planning = praxis so impaired motor planning =
apraxia
What is impaired motor planning in regard to speech execution?
dysarthria
What Brodmann's area is the premotor cortex?
Brodmann's area 6
Where is the premotor cortex and what does it do?
It is a supplementary motor area rostral and contiguous to area 6 (primary motor cortex). It is responsible for the programming of skilled body movements
What Brodmann's areas are included in the prefrontal cortex?
9, 10, 11, 12 (frontal pole)
Where is the prefrontal cortex and what does it do?
It lies anterior to 4, 6 and 8. It is the biological correlate of human intelligence. It mediates executive functions (reasoning abstraction, planning, judgment)
What happens when there is damage to the prefrontal cortex?
impaired cognitive functioning and judgement - common in closed head injury
What is on the ventral surface of the of the frontal lobe?
1. olfactory sulci
2. olfactory tracts and bulbs
What are the main gyri in the parietal lobe?
1. postcentral
2. angular
3. supermarginal
Where is the postcentral gyrus and what does it do?
It is caudal to the central sulcus and contains primary (somato)sensory cortex. It is the sensory counterpart to the precentral gyrus - it contains the sensory homunculus
What Brodmann numbers are ascribed to the primary central cortex?
3, 1, and 2
Where is the angular gyrus (AG), what number is it and what does it do?
The angular gyrus is at the juncture of the partietal-occipital-temporal corticies. It is Brodmann's area 39, and it is important for cross-modal association
What happens when there is damage to the left AG?
they patient has word-finding problems (anomia)
What are the main gyri in the parietal lobe?
1. postcentral
2. angular
3. supermarginal
Where is the postcentral gyrus and what does it do?
It is caudal to the central sulcus and contains primary (somato)sensory cortex. It is the sensory counterpart to the precentral gyrus - it contains the sensory homunculus
What Brodmann numbers are ascribed to the primary central cortex?
3, 1, and 2
Where is the angular gyrus (AG), what number is it and what does it do?
The angular gyrus is at the juncture of the partietal-occipital-temporal corticies. It is Brodmann's area 39, and it is important for cross-modal association
What happens when there is damage to the left AG?
they patient has word-finding problems (anomia)
Where is the the suprarmarginal gyrus, what number is it and what does it do?
The supramarginal gyrus is anterior to the AG and slightly superior. It is Brodmann's number 40.
What happens if there is a lesion in the supramarginal gyrus?
disorders of reading (alexia), writing (agraphia), calculation (acalculia) and language (aphasia)
What is the somatosensory association cortex?
It is areas 40, 5 and 7. Damange to the left SG causes reading problems (alexias), while damage to 5 and 7 causes agnosias (without knowledge - tactile, visual, auditory)
What is the function of the parietal lobe?
Perceptual analysis and interpretation of general senses; cross modal associations, integration, left parietal lobe is important for reading and word retrieval; right parietal lobe is lead hemisphere for the visuospatial and visuoconstructive tasks
What happens if there is damage to the RIGHT parietal lobe?
1. visuospatial & constructive disorders
2. spatial orientation problems
3. inattention and spatial neglect
4. agnosias
What happens where there is damage the LEFT hemisphere of the parietal lobe?
1. inattention and spacial neglect (but less than in R hemisphere)

2. agnosias

3. alexias

4. anomia, often in the context of aphasia
What are the three main gyri of the temporal lobe?
1. superior (1st)
2. middle (2nd)
3. inferior (3rd)
Where is Wernicke's area, what is its number and what does it do?
It occupies parts of the 1st and 2nd temporal gyrus, Brodmann's area 22, and it is the auditory verbal association cortex (on the left hemisphere); it is the area of spoken language comprehension
What is the planum temporale?
It is a flat area on the superior surface of the temporal lobe - it is a continuation of Wernicke's area
What happens if there is damage to Wernicke's area?
There is impaired comprehension of spoken language. There is fluent but impaired spoken language output. Called "Wernicke's type aphasia"
what is the main effect of B-Blockers in the treatment of HF (2)
Prevent or reverse cardiac hypertrophy and remodeling

Prevent atrial/ventricular arrhythmias

NOTE : over stimulation of SNS in HF is thought to contribute to mortality
Where is Heschl's Gyrus and what is its number and function?
It is on the superior surface of temporal lobe/inferior wall of Slyvian fissure. It is also called transverse gyrus of Heschl, best seen on coronal section. It is the primary auditory cortex. Brodmann's areas 41 and 42. Each gyrus receives bilateral input. it is bordered by association cortex.
Where is the insula located?
it is not visible from the cortical surface. it is located deep within the Sylvian fissure. It is also called the Island of Reil or insular cortex. It has a parallel long and short gyri.
What happens when there is a lesion in the insula?
Isolation syndrome - posterior speech areas are cut off from the rest of the cortex
Where is the occipital lobe and what does it do?
it is the most posterior lobe. It contains the primary visual cortex.
What is the location of the primary visual cortex and what does it do?
which is Brodmann's area 17. It receives all visual data.
Where is the cacarine fissure?
It's in the occipital lobe. It divides striate cortex into two part. Upper = cuneus (cuneate gyrus) and Lower = lingual gyrus.
Where is the visual association cortex, what does it do and what is its number?
it surrounds the primary cortex, and its number is Brodmann's areas 18 & 19. 18 = interprets visual data. 19 = automatic following movements
What is the limbic love and what does it do?
it is known as the emotional brain. It is phylogenetially old and lies deep within the hemisphere. It rings the corpus callosum and rostral brainstem. It is at the level of the inferior temporal lobe and diencephalon (thalamus)
What are the structures of the limbic lobe?
1. cyngulate gyrus
2. amygdala (role in pragmatics)
3. hippocampus & fornix (memory and learning)
4. mamillary bodies
5. uncus (olfactory cortex)