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308 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Why is blood different from other Extracellular Fluid?
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contains proteins that are typically not found in other ECF
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What is a reticulocyte?
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immature RBC
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What is erythropoiesis?
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formation of erythrocytes/RBC
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Where does erythropoiesis take place usually?
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bone marrow
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What is a reticulocyte count?
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a diagnostic tool that counts how many reticulocytes are in circulation at the time
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What kind of feedback loop controls erythropoiesis?
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negative
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How do the kidneys know more erythrocytes need to be made?
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receptors monitor O2 and when O2 levels go below what they should be they secrete a hormone called erythropoietin. This hormone then goes to bone marrow and stimulates erythropoiesis
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What are the three main components of erythrocytes?
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Fe, B12, intrinsic factor
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What is the intrinsic factor?
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substance produced in the stomach that is necessary for the digestion of B12 in the digestive tube
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What is the disorder where there is a single Nitrogenous base subsitution for the globin causing the base to be different then normal
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Sickle cell anemia
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How many amino acids are changed in the chain of the globin in sickle cell anemia?
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one
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What is sickle cell crisis?
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a sickle cell gets lodged in a capillary causing the area that is blocked to use anaerobic respiration causing a buildup of lactic acid
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Other than the inability to transport O2 effectively what is a problem of having sickle cell anemia?
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sickle cells are rigid and cannot wiggle into necessary areas
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What disease results in the missing complete portions of the globin or a complete globin?
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Thalassemia
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What is anemia?
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the individual lacks sufficient hemoglobin to transport adequate amounts of O2
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What is hypoxia?
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a deficiency of O2
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What is a hematocrit?
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a diagnostic tool used to detect the % of RBC in whole blood or the ratio of RBC to whole blood
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What are teh proteins on the cell membrane of erythrocytes?
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agglutinogen
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What are agglutinogens?
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glycoproteins found on the cell membrane on the erythrocytes
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What tell what blood type you have?
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Agglutinogen
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What is it called when athletes infuse their blood with packed red blood cells?
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blood doping
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How are leukocytes different from erythrocytes?
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have no pigmented molecule, least numerous of the blood cells, do have a nucleus, very easily migrate from blood to other spaces,
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What is the self marker protein called on leukocytes?
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Major histocompatibilty antigen "MHC" antigen
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What is the special MHC on leukocytes?
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human leukocyte antigen "HLA"
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What are subgroups of MHC antigens?
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Human leukocyte antigen
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What are the three different granulocytes?
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neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils
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What are the two major characteristics of granulocytes?
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have granules, lobed nuclei
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What is the major characteristic of agranulocytes?
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incredibly large dark staining nuclei
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What are the two types of agranulocytes?
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monocytes and lymphocytes
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What is the function of leukocytes?
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help protect against infection
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What is chemotaxis?
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chemical attraction
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What is the major hormone that works during chemotaxis?
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histamine
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What allows the WBC to move from blood to tissue?
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diapedesis
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What is adherence during phagocytosis?
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a phagocytic WBC attaches to whatever it is going to eat
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What are the four steps in phagocytosis?
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chemotaxis, diapedesis, adherence, engluf
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What is another name for neutrophil?
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polymorphonucleocyte "PMN"
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What is another name for Polymophonucleocyte?
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neutrophil
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What is a band?
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an immature neutrophil
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What leukocyte is highly phagocytic?
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neutrophil/polymophonucleocyte
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What leukocyte is the first responder and how long does it take for them to get there?
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neutrophil/polymorphonucleocyte - 20 minutes
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Which one is the largest of the leukocytes?
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monocyte
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Which leukocyte has a large dark staining nucleus?
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monocyte
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Which leukocyte attacks the chronic infection?
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monocyte
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What is a macrophage?
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monocyte that has migrated out of blood and into tissue
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What are the two types of machrophages?
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fixed and wandering
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Where can we find fixed machrophages?
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spleen and liver
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What system is made up of the fixed machrophages?
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reticuloendothelial system
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What is pretty much the most important part of machrophages?
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help to activate immune system cells
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Which leukocytes are the least numerous?
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basophils
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What is a basophil that has migrated out of the blood?
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mast cells
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What is the material contained in mast cells that prevents coagulation?
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heparin
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What material contained in mast cells that are very potent chemical attractant?
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Histamine
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Which hormone in mast cells trigger inflammation?
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histamine
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What color are the granules of an eosinophil?
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red or a red orange
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Where can eosinophils typically be found?
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mucosa of the respiratory and digestive systems
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Which leukocytes contain antihistamines?
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eosinophils
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What is the only non phagocytic leukocyte?
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lymphocyte
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Which leukocyte has a nucleus so large that you typically only see a halo of cytoplasm?
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lymphocyte
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What does the lymphocytes trigger?
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B and T cells
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What is a differential count?
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a diagnostic tool that determines the number of each of the types of white blood cells in a total of 100 white blood cells
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List the leukocytes in order from most numerous to least numerous
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neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils
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What controls leukopoiesis?
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a group of hormones collectively called the colony stimulating factors
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What is the typical life span of most leukocytes?
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10-14 days
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What is the hormone contained in thrombocytes that causes smooth muscle to contract?
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serotonin
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What is the typical lifespan of thrombocytes?
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10-12 days
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Where are platelets stored?
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spleen
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What hormone controls thrombopoesis?
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thrombopoietin
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Blood - formed elements =
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plasma
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What are the two basic functions of plasma proteins?
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serves as a reservoir for amino acids in the body and produce a colloidal osmotic pressure in blood
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By producing a colloidal osmotic pressure in blood, what happens?
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maintain blood volume and thus blood pressure
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What are the solutes found in plasma?
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water, plasma proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, gases, regulatory substances, and waste products
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What are the three groups of plasma proteins?
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albumin, globulins, fibrinogen
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What is the most significant plasma protein in creating colloidal osmotic pressure and why?
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Albumin because it is most numerous
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What are the functions of albumin?
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buffer, transport, wound healing,
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What makes albumin?
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liver
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What determines colloidal osmotic pressure in blood
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plasma protein albumin
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What electrolyte determines colloidal osmotic in the ICF?
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K+
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What electrolyte determines colloidal osmotic pressure in the ECF?
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Na+
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What are the 3 types of globulins?
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alpha beta and gamma
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What are gamma globulins?
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antibodies
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Is fibrinogen soluble or insoluble?
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soluble
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What is the function of fibrinogen?
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clot formation
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Is fibrin soluble or insoluble?
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insoluble
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Which is the active form? Fibrinogen or Fibrin?
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Fibrin
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What is hemostasis?
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processes for reestablishing a closed vascular system after one has been broken
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What are the three stages of hemostasis?
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vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation
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What are the phases of hemostasis?
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vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation (overlap slightly)
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When there is damage what do the smooth muscles do?
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contract to cause the damage to become smaller
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What is the hormone that is released during vascular spasm and what does it do?
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Serotonin - causes vascular spasm to keep going
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What cells have same charges resulting in the cells repelling each other?
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platelets
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What releases serotonin?
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platelets
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What is serum?
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plasma minus the clotting proteins
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Where are most coagulation factors found?
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liver
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Fibrin + formed elements =
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clot
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What are the three steps of coagulation?
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prothrombin acitvator= prothrombinase, prothrombin >prothrombinase>thrombin, fibrinogin>thrombin>fibrin
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What is the "math equation" for extrinsic coagulation?
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tissue thromboplastin + coagulation factors = prothrombinase
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What is the "math equation" for intrinsic coagulation?
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trapped platelets + coagulation factors = prothrombinase
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What ion is needed in every step of coagulation?
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Ca+2
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What is the function of retraction in coagulation?
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the clot shrinks so as to make the thrombocytes pack tighter and to make the vessel come closer together
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During coagulation what provides the framework for the new vessel?
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fibroblasts depositing collagen fibers
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What is fibrinolysis?
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dissolving of the clot
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What helps to keep control of the clot so as to not block up the whole vessel?
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plasmin
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What activates plasminogen?
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chemicals being released from cells in a broken blood vessel
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What is hemophilia?
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a disease characterized by not being able to form a clot when necessary
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What causes hemophilia?
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lack of one of the clotting factors
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The lack of which clotting factor results in hemophilia A?
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VIII
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The lack of which clotting factor results in hemophilia B?
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IX
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What is thrombosis?
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the formation of a clot in an intact vessel
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What is a thrombus?
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a clot
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What is an embolus?
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A thrombus that has pulled away from the wall of the vessel and is floating in circulation
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What are the four steps that can be taken so as to not become a victim of thrombosis?
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antithrombin, fibrin, heparin, and basophils/mast cells
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What is the anticoagulant that leeches secret?
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hirudin
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What is an agglutinogen?
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antigen on the cell membrane of an RBC
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What is an agglutinin?
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antibody for agglutinogen
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What is the universal donor?
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O-
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What are the two advantages to synthetic blood?
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longer shelf life and no blood typing
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True or False:
If you are Rh- you are never given Rh+ |
True
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What are the generic functions of blood?
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transportation, homeostasis, protections
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What are the components of blood?
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plasma and formed elements
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What are the formed elements?
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erythrocytes, thrombocytes, leukocytes
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Where are all the formed elements found?
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meloid tissue
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What type of tissue gives rise to agranulocytes?
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lymphoid tissue
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What are the two types of tissues that give rise to erythrocytes?
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myeloid and lymphoid
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What kind of cells give rise to the formed elements?
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pluripotent stem cells
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What kind of stem cell gives rise to granulocytes?
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myeloblast
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What kind of stem cell gives rise to thrombocytes?
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megakaryoblasts
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Why is the fact that an RBC is in the shape of a biconcave disc a good thing?
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increases surface area
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Do RBC have a nucleus?
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no
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What kind of respiration are RBCs capable of?
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anaerobic respiration
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What is hemoglobin made up of?
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4 poly peptide chains called globin
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What gives to color to the globin?
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Heme
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In the hemoglobin, what contains the Fe?
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heme
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What are the 3 functions of heme?
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combines reversibly with O2, CO2, and capable of buffering H+ ions
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What does the chemical equation look like that represents O2 reversibly binding with hemoglobin?
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Hgb + O2 ><HgbO2
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What does the chemical equation look like that represents CO2 reversibly binding with hemoglobin?
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Hgb + CO2 >< HgbCO2
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What does the chemical equation look like that represents hemoglobin being a buffer for H+?
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Hgb + H >< HHgb
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When O2 binds to hemoglobin what is it called and to what portion does it bind?
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Oxyhemoglobin - heme portion
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When CO2 binds to hemoglobin what is it called and to what portion does it bind?
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carbaminohemoglobin - protein
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What does globin break down into?
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amino acids
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What does heme break down into?
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Fe and biliverdin
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What is biliverdin?
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a pigmented waste molecule from heme and produced in the liver
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What does biliverden convert to?
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bilirubin
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After biliverden is converted to bilirubin what happens to it?
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dumped into bile > small intestines > large intestines
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What does bilirubin turn into and how?
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urobilinogen - bacteria decomposition of large intestine
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After urobilinogen leaves the large intestine where does it go?
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kidney and then go into urine
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Where are the left overs released if they do not go through urine?
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feces
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What basically is the heart?
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Mechanical pump
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What is the function of the heart?
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pump blood through a closed system fo blood vessels
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Where do the pumps on the right of the heart go to?
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lungs
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Where do the pumps on the left of the heart go to?
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rest of the body
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What is the basic size of your heart?
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size of a fist
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How much does your heart weigh?
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a pound
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Where is your heart located?
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mediastinum
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Where does your heart extend to?
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from the 2nd rib to teh 5th intercostal space
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What is the pericardium?
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coverings around the heart
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How many pericardiums are there and what are they called?
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2 - fibrous and serious
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Which of the 2 pericardiums is the outter most?
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fibrous
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What is fibrous pericardium made out of?
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dense connective tissue
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What is the main goal of fibrous pericardium?
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anchoring the heart to surrounding structures
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What is the inner most layer of pericardium?
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serous
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How many layers of serious pericardium are there and what are they called?
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3 - visceral layer and pericardial cavity and parietal layer
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What is the most outermost layer of the heart?
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visceral layer
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What is another name for visceral layer?
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epicardium
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What is so special about pericardial cavity?
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contains lubricant
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What is the inner most layer of the heart?
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parietal layer
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What are the three layers of the heart?
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endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium
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What is endocardium made up of?
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endothelium attached to a thin layer of connective tissue
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What is myocardium made up of?
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cardiac muscle fibers
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Which of the three layers of the heart is the thickest?
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myocardium
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Which of the three layers of the heart does the most work?
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myocardium
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How are the muscle fibers in the myocardium arranged?
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spiral/circular
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What is the connective tissue framework/network of the myocardium?
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collagen and elastic fibers
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What are the functions of the connective tissue framework/network of the myocardium?
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provide support, serve as anchors. reinforces the myocardium
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What is epicardium made up of?
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mesothelium
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How many chambers of the heart are there?
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4
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What is the interatrial septum?
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division of the atriums
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What is the intraventricular septum?
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division of the ventricles
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What are the auricles?
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ear shaped structures located on the outside surface of the heart
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Where are the auricles located?
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over the regions of the atria
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What is the coronary sulcus/atriventricular sulcus?
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groove on the outside surface of the heart
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What does coronary sulcus/atrioventricular sulcus contain a lot of?
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coronary vesicles
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What does the coronary sulcus/atrioventricular sulcus do?
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delineates between the atria and ventricles of the heart
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What is the groove on the front of the heart?
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anterior interventricular sulcus
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What is the groove on the back of the heart?
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posterior interventricular sulcus
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What are the receiving chambers of the heart?
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atria
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Where does blood empty into in the heart?
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atria
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How do the posterior walls of the atria feel?
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smooth
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How do the anterior walls of the atria feel?
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ridges
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What are the pectinate muscles?
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ridges in the anterior walls of the atria
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This is a "functioning tumor" and presenting symptoms are visual ditrubances, loss of body air, DM, sterility, and headaches. It is usually benign and curable, with surgery thru the nose:
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Pituitary Tumor
(e.g. Cushing's Syndrome) |
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What is the fossa ovalis?
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indentation of the ineratrail septum
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What is the hole in the interatrial septum?
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foramen ovale
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Which chambers make up most of the volume of the heart?
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ventricles
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What are the discharge chambers of the heart?
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ventricles
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What are teh trabeculae carneae?
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ridges on the inside surface of the ventricles
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What muscles are on the internal walls of the ventricles?
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papillary muscles
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Which chambers have the thickest walls?
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ventricles
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Which ventricles has the thickest walls? Why?
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left ventricle - pumps body wide
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Which atrium receives DOB from the body?
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right atrium
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What veins bring blood to the right atrium?
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superior and inferior vena cavas and coronary sinus
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Where does the coronary sinus drain blood from?
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out of the walls of the heart - primarily the myocardium
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What artery drains blood from the right artium?
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pulmonary trunk
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What is the fibrous skeleton of the heart?
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dense connective tissue in the wall of the heart
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What is the function of the fibrous skeleton of the heart?
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provides for a point of attachment for muscle, gives support to the heart wall, structural foundation for the valves
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What doesn't O2 just diffuse across the heart walls?
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walls are too thick
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What are the very first branches off of the ascending aorta?
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brachiocephalic artery, left common carotid artery, and left subclavian artery
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What two arteries does the left coronary artery branch off to?
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anterior interventricular artery and circumflex artery
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What two arteries does the right coronary artery branch off to?
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posterior interventricular artery and marginal artery
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What are anastomoses?
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blood vessels that provide collateral blood circulation (back up blood flow) to a region
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What cell has the antibody protein IgE?
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Mast cells
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An IgE found in mast cells is what?
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antibody protein
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What does IgE do?
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combines with stuff to make an allergic reaction this causes histamine to be released
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What is ischemia?
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blockage in one of the coronary blood vessels
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What is infarction?
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death of the tissue beyond the blockage often caused by ischemia
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What is an angina?
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pain associated with reduced blood flow to a region of the heart caused by the build up of lactic acid (referred pain)
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What maintains directional movement of blood?
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cardiac cycle and presence of valves
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What is the function of heart valves?
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prevent blood back flow
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What are the two sets of valves?
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Atrioventricular and semilunar
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What type of valve is the tricuspid valve, and where is it located?
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Atrioventricular - right side
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What type of valve is the bicuspid/mitral valve, and where is it located?
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Atrioventricular - left side
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The cusps on the AV valves point down into what chambers?
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ventricles
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What is attached to the point of the AV valves?
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chordae tendineae
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What is the purpose of the chordae tendineae?
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anchor the cusps
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Other than the valves, what is the chordae tendineae attached to?
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papillary muscles
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What are the names of the two semilunar valves?
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pulmonary semilunar and aortic semilunar
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Which type of valve is made up of 3 flaps of tissue?
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semilunar
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Which type of valve is shaped like a pocket?
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semilunar
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What is stenosis?
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when a valve has become stiff, less pliable
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What does the heart have to do when stenosis occurs?
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heart has to beat harder
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What organelle does cardiac muscle fibers have a lot of?
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Mitochondria
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Other than aerobic respiration, what can cardiac muscles use to create ATP?
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glucose catobolism
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Other than glucose, what can CMF use to create ATP?
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fatty acids, ketone, lactic acids
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What does creatine kinase do?
|
converts the energy from creatine phosphate to make ATP
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What is the function of testing a patient for how much creatine kinase is in his or her blood?
|
tests for a heart attack because as a cell dies creatine kinase (an ICF) is released
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What is autorhythmicity?
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CMF need no external stimulus for the heart to beat
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What allows the CMF to keep up their autorhytmicity?
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gap junctions
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Offers for the sale of real estates must include (2)
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Price and Description
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How does nodal tissue come about?
|
starts as CMF an a fetus and looses its ability to contract, but gains the ability to generate action potentials
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Where is the sinotrial node located?
|
right atria wall just below the opening to the superior vena cave
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Which node is referred to as the pace maker of the heart?
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SA node
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What is the SA node called?
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sinotrial node
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What is the AV node called?
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atrioventricular node
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What is the nodal tissue in order?
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SA node, AV node, bundle of His, bundle branches, purkinje fibers
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Where is the AV node located?
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in the inferior region of teh interatrial septum
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Which node holds the AP and why?
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AV node - waits until the atria have finished contracting
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What is the mechanical current of the heart?
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myocardium
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What is the electrical current of the heart?
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nodal tissue
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Concerning action potential, what is the difference between skeletal and cardiac muscle fibers?
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source of CA+2 and duration of resulting contraction
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What are the 3 steps in an action potential concerning CMF?
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rapid depolarization, plateau, repolarization
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What causes the extension of the period of depolarization in CMF?
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influx of Ca+2 and the outflow of K+
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________ causes an influx of Ca+2.
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depolarization
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What period in an AP lasts longer in CMF than it did in skeletal?
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depolarization
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Why is the absolute refractory period significant in CMF?
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makes it so CMF cannot go into tetanus
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What is an electrocardiogram?
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device that records electrical waves on the surface of the heart
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What is the P wave and what does it measure?
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first wave - depolarization in the atria
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What is the QRS wave and what does it measure?
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2nd wave - records ventricular depolarization
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What is the T wave and what does it measure?
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3rd wave - records ventricular repolarization
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Which is the biggest wave?
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QRS wave
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Do the contractions of the chambers happen during or after their respective waves?
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after
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What is arrhythemia/dysrhythemia?
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any variation from the normal heart beat
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What are the two reasons that cause arrhythmia?
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anything that alters SA node activity and anything that interferes with the conduction system of the heart
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What is a heart block?
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something that interferes with teh nodal tissue
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What is a 1st degree heart block?
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takes a longer period of time for the AP to travel through the nodal tissue (slows the heart beat)
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What is a 2nd degree heart block?
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the ventricles miss a beat
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What is a 3rd degree heart block?
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complete separation of atrial and ventricle activity
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Which type of heart block can be fixed and with what?
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3rd - pace maker
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What causes the distinct sounds in a complete heart cycle?
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closing of the heart valves
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Which heart sound is louder?
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1st
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The first heart sound is caused by what?
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closing of the AV valve
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Which heart sound is shorter and sharper?
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2nd
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The second heart sound is caused by what?
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closing of the semilunars
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What is a cardiac cycle?
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all of the events associated with blood flow through the heart during one complete heart beat
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Is the cardiac cycle referring to the electric or mechanical activity?
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mechanical
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What does systole mean?
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contraction - increase pressure
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What is diastole?
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relaxation - decrease pressure
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When does the cardiac cycle begin?
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after the end of the atrial diastole
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What are the steps of the cardiac cycle?
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SA node fires, atria contracts, AV node fires, ventricles go into systole, entire heart goes into a time of rest/diastole
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What is the function of the period of total relaxation.
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the myocardium gets it's blood during this time
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What is the cardiac output?
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the volume of blood ejected from each ventricle per minute
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What determines cardiac output?
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volume of blood per contraction and number of contractions per minute
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What is the stroke volume?
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volume of blood ejected by the left ventricle per contraction/stroke
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What factors determine stroke volume?
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force of the contraction and volume of venous blood returned to the heart
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What does starling's law of the heart state?
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the length of a cardiac muscle fiber determines the force of contraction of the cardiac muscle fibers
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Why is Starling's law of the hear important?
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allows the heart to adjust its force of contraction to accommodate the amount of blood it has to move
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What is cardiac reserve?
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the difference between resting cardiac output and maximum output
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Why is cardiac reserve a good thing in terms of homeostasis?
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keeps O2 at a necessary rate
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What is cardiac reserve?
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the difference between resting cardiac output and maximum output
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What is after load?
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pressure the heart must overcome for ventricles to eject blood
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What regulates heart rate?
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SA node - would fire 100/min if left alone
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The cardiac center is made up of 2 different components. What are they?
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cardioacceleratory center and cardioinhibitory center
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What part of the autonomic nervous system controls the cardioacceleratory center?
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sympathetic
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What part of the autonomic nervous system runs the cardioinhibitody center?
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parasymphatetic
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What nerve fibers does the cardioacceleratory center use?
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T1-T5
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What nerve fibers does the cardioinhibitory center use?
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Vagus nerve
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Which cardio center has nerve fibers that also end in the myocardium?
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cardiacacceleratory center
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What does the cardioacceleratory center release when stimulated?
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norepinephrine
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What does the cardioibhibitory center release when stimulated?
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ACh
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What is vagal tone?
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heart beats slower than if there were no nerves activating it at all
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Which receptor detects physical movement?
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proprioreceptors
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What types of chemicals does chemoreceptors detect?
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H+, CO2, and O2
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What are the hormones that effect heart rate?
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norepinephrine and epinephrine, thyroxine, ions
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Which chemicals are stimulated by physical activity?
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norepinephrine and epinephrine
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What is so special about thyroxine?
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when secreted in large quantities it increases heart rate
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What does hypocalecemia cause?
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depresses heart action
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What does hypercalcelmia cause?
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increases heart rate
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What does hypokalemia cause?
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arryhthemia
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What does hyperkalemia cause?
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hyperpolarization - causes heart block because it is hard to generate AP
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What does hypernatremia cause?
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interferes with contractions
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