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44 Cards in this Set
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Conservation refugees
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People removed from their homeland involuntarily, either by force or coercion. The evictions occur because Conservationists are creating so called “protected areas” (PAs) which aim to protect the environment from losing it’s biological diversity. Often the conservation refugees are displaced and face many difficulties.
Ex: In Mark Dowie’s “Conservation Refugees”, Dowie writes about transnational conservation as the major threat to the Indigenous Rights Movement. Dowie describes the experience of indigenous people who have been displaced by transnational conservation. The evicted people become conservation refugees who have to learn to survive without their land and resources. (Dowie 2009: xv-xxii) |
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Ecological refugees
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People who are forced to leave once-sustainable settlements because of unbearable climate conditions such as unbearable heat, drought, desertification, flooding, disease, or consequences of climate change.
Ex: In Mark Dowie’s “Conservation Refugees”, Dowie compares ecological refugees to conservation refugees, saying that readers should not confuse the two as conservation refugees do not leave their land voluntarily, but rather they forced off of their land by others rather than environmental causes. (Dowie 2009: xxii) |
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Soft Eviction
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a practice allowing residents to remain on their land, but not allowing them to use it in traditional ways, such as small-scale farming, herding, hunting, etc., essentially destroying their culture in the same way as if they had been evicted.
Ex. - According to Cherokee leader Rebecca Adamson, soft eviction is just as traumatic as relocation because it deprives them of their traditional culture and land use , but is still used by the “Big 5” conservation organizations( because they feel that the resident’s land use will damage the biological diversity (Dowie: (2009) xxii). A form of this is seen with the creation of Amboseli National Reserve in 1947. The Maasai were allowed to live there, but their grazing rights were severely restricted, resulting in conflict with the Kenyan government (Dowie (2009): 37-8). |
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Greenwashing
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publicized information by an organization/corporation so as to present an image of environmental conservation.
Dowie mentions greenwashing occurring with large transnational corporations. BINGOs partner with corporations to “promote business practices that reduce industry’s ecological footprint, contribute to conservation, and create value for the companies that adopt them” (55). By partnering with conservation BINGOs, transnational corporations can advertise as having products/policies that are environmentally friendly. |
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Eco-fascism
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A top-down approach to managing parks, it advocates the use of authoritarianism and military force to evict residents from parks and protect the parks against any and all human-caused danger.
Ex. Dowie mentions that this idea is proposed by those like John Terborgh who advocate nature as a wilderness free from all human impacts, and therefore removal of local populations from areas set aside as parks. Terborgh has been accused of being an ecofascist after proposing the creation of “an international armed force to defend pristine wilderness against all human dangers” because he believes police and armed forces are the only viable enforcement method(Dowie (2009): 82). |
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Traditional ecological knowledge
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Indigenous form of traditional knowledge regarding local environmental resource sustainability
ex. TEK is the “collective botanical, zoological, hydrological, cultural, and geographical knowhow, rooted in spirit, culture, and language essential to the survival of a particular tribe or community in a particular habitat” (Dowie 108). TEK sums up the ways that traditional/indigenous peoples utilize and manage the resources in their environment, which Dowie argues tends to perpetuate or increase biodiversity, rather than the reverse. |
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Community conserved areas (CCAs)
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Natural and modified ecosystems containing local communities which decide on their own to conserve local biodiversity for political, cultural, spiritual, or ethical reasons.
ex. Thousands of de facto CCAs are located in India, but few have been recognized as conservation initiatives. However, CCAs have been officially recognized by IUCN and other international organizations as a powerful tool to protect wildlife and the livelihood of indigenous communities. Ashish Kothari is part of a global network of pioneers, composed of mainly prophets-without-honor in their own countries, which pushes for CCAs and community based co-management of conservation (Dowie 2009:130-131). |
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Natural Capital
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The extension of the economic notion of capital to goods found in nature. Therefore, natural capital is composed of a stock of natural ecosystems that yield a flow of natural goods. Dowie remarks that natural capital is “the process by which the floral, faunal, and mineral components of Earth combine, without human assistance, to produce oxygen, forests, fresh water, arable soil and other free and invaluable environmental services” (2009:107).
Dowie touches upon the idea of natural capital being a relatively new concept. He speaks about how many people have understood natural capital for thousands of years (even though it has just become more popularized by eco-economists). According to Dowie, it is the people who have never been separated from landstewardship, that understand natural capital because it is their only sense of capital (financial capital is not a part of their economy, or, if it is, it plays a very minor roll). Dowie writes that, “in their world, fodder is more essentiral than cattle, the forest more important than its products, and the river more sacred than the water” (2009:107). |
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Ecological hot spot
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Other terms for an ecological hot spot are: biodiversity hot spots, priority places, and functional conservation areas. These ecological and biodiversity hot spots are areas that are most often targeted by BINGOs. Rather than taking an approach to land conservation that would look at the planet “as a holistic ecosystem endangered by industrial practices, the BINGOs approach maps for protection of vast areas of wild landscape, high in biological diversity and low in population” (Dowie 2009:56). Dowie speaks extensively through the book about the desirability of these ecological hot spots to a business-conservation partnership. A corporation can go into the materially rich area and harvest many natural resources that can be turned into a profit. The large conservationist groups receive a share of this profit if they go in with the corporations and assure the locals “that minerals, fuels, and fibers are being extracted from nature in an environmentally responsible manner” (2009:56).
The concept of ecological hot spots comes back into play in the book when Dowie is discussing the importance of paying attention to traditional ecological knowledge (TEK). Because all TEK systems are essentially holistic in their approach to the environment, many indigenous cultures practice a very scientifically sound method of conservation that not only protects the land but also encourages biodiversity. Therefore, many of these spots have a small population and a high amount of biodiversity, and are consequently target spots for business-conservationist partnerships. “Given the fact that most of the biologically rich, ecological hot spots remaining on the plant currently are occupied by proven land stewards like the Karen, perhaps they should be part of any new conservation strategy” (Dowie 2009:114). |
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“Paper Parks”
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national parks (or protected areas of similar designations, such as wildlife reserves, wilderness areas, etc.) that have been technically created and potentially mapped through legislation by state governments, but which are generally not managed, regulated, or enforced as the legislation intends, allowing the (indigenous) peoples which may inhabit those areas to continue living on and utilizing the land and its resources in the same ways that they have traditionally done so.
Ex: Dowie cites the example of “paper parks” in Thailand, where -- prior to a “recent outburst of environmental enthusiasm” on the part of the Thai government, brought about by funding from the World Bank and the Global Environmental Facility -- “the few parks that existed were unmarked” (Dowie 2009: 102). As such, hill and fishing tribes such as the Karen were able to continue living within official park designations, subsisting on resources found there and practicing the crop rotation agriculture upon which their livelihoods had been based for more than 200 years. After the proliferation of official park creation brought about by the international conservation funding, however, much of the land upon which indigenous peoples live and depend has come under the “protection” and management of the Thai Royal Forest Department, leading to the restriction of traditional cultural practices (such as hunting and agriculture) and the evacuation of many tribes living in Thailand’s highlands and hills. |
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Tenure mapping
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A field of cartography that emerged in the early 1970s as an effective tool to gain legal recognition of ancestral territory and preservation of these indigenous homelands. Tenure mapping was expanded to a newer form “culture mapping”, which has the main purpose of revitalization of cultural identity and thus includes new data and factors such as “anthropological, sociological, archaeological, genealogical, linguistic, botanical, and musicological” entries.
Ex: The Saramaka community in Suriname used tenure mapping to enforce respect for treaties that guaranteed tenure (Dowie 2009: 195). In addition, the San of South Africa and Namibia have used maps to recover some of their former homeland in and outside Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and Etosha National Park. The Baka and Bagyeli in Cameroon have begun a mapping project with hopes of regaining access to land they tended thousands of years before it became the Lobeke and Boumba National Parks (Dowie 2009: 197-198). The overall effect of mapping has been positive for indigenous peoples; maps are instruments of power in which are usually the only document to protect their interests. Well-produced maps can swing a decision, change a park boundary, and stop evictions (Dowie 2009: 198). |
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Culture mapping
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a newer form of cartography used to revitalize a cultural identity by increasing pride and marking all of the cultural places on a map, including “anthropological, sociological, archaeological, genealogical, linguistic, botanical, and musicological entries.” They work with tenure maps which protect and restore indigenous lands.
Ex. - Culture mapping is being used on the Caribbean coast of Central America to provide indigenous communities with professional maps of settlements, archaeological sites and ceremonial /sacred sites to use in their dealings with the state and extractive industries. At times, they build on efforts already begun by groups, while others are opposed to them because they reveal secret locations of villlages and sacred sites (Dowie (2009): 195, 198) |
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Cargo Conservation
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based on a residual desire for Western material goods, large organizations promise “cargo” such as schools, clinics, and boats for compliance to a conservation agenda designed in and imposed from Washington
ex. “The main problem with cargo conservation, Kinch warned in his communications, is that when practiced, the local incentive to conserve natural resources shifts from food security to cargo. So when promised goods are not delivered… the conservation motive disappears, contractual ‘use agreements’ are torn up, no catch tabus are lifted, and embittered islanders return to overfishing sharks and beche-de-mer for export to China” (Dowie 2009:215). |
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Bioprospecting
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Phytochemists from Northern pharmaceutical and agriculture companies have a better sense of where to prospect for the raw materials and gene sequences that will lead to the creation of new drugs and food crops
ex. “While there were only vague rumors of bioprospecting being carried out during Conservation International’s rapid biological assessment of the Milne Bay region, all of them denied, CI makes no secret of its enthusiasm for the practice and what it considers bioprospecting’s positive conservation effect” (Dowie 2009:218-19). |
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Village Engagement Teams
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groups of local community members that travel around the nation to patrol communities engaging and talking with the communities about conservation helping them become conscious of how much their livelihoods depend on the management and sustained biodiversity of their environment
Ex. VET members assisted the local communities in their conservation commitments in an effort “promote self-reliance and conservation to local communities” (Dowie 216). “The VETs were to be the heart of a unique conservation initiative that emphasized the words ‘Community Based’ in its title” (216). |
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Pristine wilderness
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A natural environment on Earth that has not been touched, modified, or inhabited by civilization. It is virgin wildlands, untrammeled by man.
Ex: At Kenya’s Maasai Mara Reserve, which is the most popular wildlife-viewing area in East Africa, forest residents were evicted and restricted use of the forest resources in order to enact the idea of “pristine wilderness.” The establishment of protected areas in Africa protect natural resources, plant and animal species, as well as provide other benefits, including tourism. The tour operators at the Maasai Mara Reserve insist that tourists do not want to see anything that spoils “pristine wilderness.” Tourists stay in the immediate vicinity of the reserve where cattle grazing is allowed, but on an extremely limited, emergency basis. |
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“Enforced Primitivism”
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“Requiring indigenous people who wished to stay in protected areas to remain “native,” not to adopt modern practices or technologies, and in worse cases urging them to turn their community into a human zoo, where proud adults are paid by lodge owners to dress up in ceremonial garb and perform fertility dances for visiting ecotourists” (Dowie 2009: 268-269)
Ex. The Maasai in Kenya were often forced to ecolodges where they were forced into these traditional roles. We was this trend in both Hodgson and Dowie, and although they both present slightly different perspectives, they both agree that this is unfair to the Maasai, and the other indigenous groups which are experiencing the same issues. They have often been forced to choose between staying on their land and working in these lodges or being evicted from the land and having to find alternate forms of subsistence. |
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Utilitarian sciences
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developed by western cultures to serve their “exploitative, dominion- over- nature worldview of colonists and industrial developers.” This has played out in their management of resources (or lack thereof), which is consistent with the laissez- faire attitude of capitalism. Utilitarianism is ill- suited for sustainability, which needs to recognize environmental limitations, while at the same time striving to satisfy economic and social needs (Dowie 2009: 110).
Ex. Fikret Nerkes, professor of natural resources at the University of Manitoba, explained how utilitarian sciences conflicts with traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), which recognizes the limitations to the wealth of nature. An example of this conflict was seen with the Inuit, as western, utilitarian scientists tried to impose hunting limitations on animals like the Caribou, without understanding how critical they are to Inuit livelihood or understanding Caribou social structure. Western scientists advocated selective hunting of mature males, which was actually much more destructive to the caribou populations because the herds are dependent upon the alpha males to get them through the winter. The Inuit recognized this and brought a stop to this practice (Dowie 2009: 112). |
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Transborder
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crossing or extending across a border
Lynn Stephen wants to focus on the crossing of several borders both geographical and social rather than just transnational. She writes her book to recount the lives of many Mexican indigenous migrants as transborder rather than transnational as they cross a variety of frontiers and borders including “ethnic, class, cultural, colonial, and state borders within Mexico as well as at the U.S.-Mexico border and in different regions of the United States” (6). |
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Transnational
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according to Kearney’s definition, there are two senses of this world. One of them having to do with the forms of organization and identity which are not constrained to national boundaries. The second meaning he proposed was “post-national,” which implies a state of being which is beyond the reach of the national and state governments.
An example of the first definition of transnational is the transnational corporations that we have studied such as Dupont. However, in the second sense of the word, Stephen does not think that communities like Teotitlan and San Agustin can be considered transnational, despite their participation in both American and Mexican society, because they are still within the reach of both governments (Stephen 2007: 27). |
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Meshworks
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understanding interlinked networks and the total effect they produce on a system; how to conceptualize transmigrant activity, whether as networks, circuits, or interlinked networks; coined by Arturo Escobar
ex. “Escobar states that antiglobalization struggles are best seen as ‘horizontal, self-organizing meshworks of heterogenous sites/struggles brought together by diverse interfaces and catalysts, particularly NGOs and pioneering social movements...Meshworks can also be seen as courses and practices, that is creating fields of action thaharbor or capture a number of sites” (Stephen 2007: 19-20). |
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Multisited existence
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life experiences of individuals who periodically inhabit multiple homes and localities, and for whom interaction with “discontinuous social, economic, and cultural spaces” linked through “kinship, rituals of labor, and individual and collectives resources of material and symbolic means” are the norm (Stephen 2007: 9).
Ex: Stephen suggests that individuals who live multisited existences divide their time between working in certain locations and returning to their hometowns “to get married, build homes, tend to fields, help sick loved ones, bury the dead...and run the local government and services,” and that this division is “utter normality” for people who live and work for long periods of time in places that are not their homes (Stephen 2007: 5). |
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Remittances
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economic assistance sent to individuals "at home" from family members living and working in areas (such as the United States) beyond the community of the hometown (Stephen 2007: 10).
Ex: Stephen suggests that the majority of the recent investment occurring in the center of San Agustin comes from private investment in the commercial sector, specifically of family-run stores, the majority of which are funded through remittances earned in other locations (Stephen 2007: 3). |
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Concept of Social Field
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People who move between the boundaries of nation-states are influenced by the “multiple sets of laws and institutions…[and] their daily rhythms and activities respond not only to more than one state simultaneously but also to social institutions, such as religious groups, that exist within many states and cross their borders” (Stephen 2007:21-22).
Ex. Stephen suggests that the concept of social field is useful in moving “beyond the container of the nation-state for social analysis…[and] offers a way around the binary divisions, for example, global/local and national/transnational, that have permeated much of social analysis related to the nation-state” (Stephen 2007:21). |
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Deterritorialization
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the severance of social, political, and cultural practices from their native places and populations.
Ex. “Therefore, the analysis of the advantages or inconveniences of deterritorialization should not be reduced to the movements of ideas of cultural codes...Their meaning is also constructed in connection with social and economic practices, in struggles for local power, and in the competition to benefit from alliances with external powers” (Stephen 2007:25). |
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Border areas
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geographical locations where migrants are more likely to cross borders and migrants, themselves, who are more likely to try and jump the border.
Ex. “...’border areas’ are not confined to the geographical areas physically linked to the U.S-Mexico border, but are also carried on the bodies of migrants, who historically have been read as illegal since the 1930s” (Stephen 2007: 26). |
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Transmigrants (transnational migrants)
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Workers who move from one country to another building transnational links. Vince Glick Schiller defines transmigrants as “those persons, who having migrated from one nation-state to another, live their lives across borders, participating simultaneously in social relations that embed them in more than one nation-state” (Stephen 2007:19).
Ex. People from communities of San Agustin are connected to another through multiple networks and ties and also these networks themselves are linked to other networks that span the United States and Mexico. This conceptualizes how transmigrants are linked together as meshworks (Stephen 2007:20). |
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video advocacy
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using visual media as a targeted tool that will engage people to create change. Video advocacy is not about using video primarily for publicity or as an educational or training tool, but about using video hand-in-hand with other advocacy tools such as litigation, research, organizing, and monitoring. It requires setting specific objectives, identifying target audiences, and developing a strategic plan for production and distribution to ensure the video has impact as a specific tactic within a broader strategy.
As discussed in class, many indigenous peoples are using footage that they themselves have produced in their fight for indigenous rights. |
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Structural adjustment
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Policies intended to reduce the current debt of a nation
eg. In Mexico, this model largely impacted the agricultural sectors. It “reduced government support for peasant agriculture in order to encourage peasants to migrate to high-wage regions” (Stephen 122). Monetary policies were geared towards contracting economic activity in order to reduce imports and achieve price stability. Fiscal balance was attained through the lowering of trade barriers and tariffs (125). |
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reproductive labor
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the labor needed to sustain the productive labor force. Such work includes household chores, the care of elders, adults, and youth, the socialization of children, and the maintenance of social ties in the family.
As discussed in the Stephen book, many mothers migrate to the U.S. and leave some children behind, thus the "reproductive labor" of caring for their children is enacted in Mexico, by their kin, while their own productive labor is enacted in the U.S.. This is difficult for the mothers, who often need to negotiate the difficult emotions that arise when their children are more attached to their grandmother (or other caretaker) than to them, or when they develop different relationships with the children left behind in Mexico and cannot easily migrate to the U.S. and the children (usually younger ones) who were born in the U.S. and are thus legal residents. |
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Latino/a
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a term used to describe people, usually immigrants to the U.S., who come from Mexico, Central, and South America. It includes people from all of the countries south of the U.S., where the major languages are the romance languages (Spanish, Portuguese, and French).
As Stephen discusses, as of 2000 one can identify as Latino on the U.S. census, then specify that one is "Native American" (i.e. "indigenous). Thus, for the first time, distinctions between indigenous and non-indigenous Latinos can be made. |
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Hispanic
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a term used to describe people, usually immigrants to the U.S., who originate in a country that was conquered by Spain and that speaks the Spanish language. This does NOT include central and south American countries and groups that do not speak Spanish (such as Brazil, which speaks Portugal), or indigenous people, or people of African descent
As Stephen discusses, the ability of Mexican immigrants to identify on the U.S. census as Hispanic, rather than "white," began in 1980. However, many Mexican immigrants (and scholars) contest this category for it emphasizes Spanish heritage over indigenous, African, or other heritage. |
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Chicano
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Mexican-American. This term was originally used as a racial slur to describe Mexican Americans living in urban, Spanish-speaking neighborhoods, but was reclaimed by activists to become a term of ethnic pride and a celebration of non-white identity and non-assimilation. The term also refers to an identifying category and social construction of peoples who emphasize, with pride, a direct link to the indigenous peoples and mestizo nations of the Americas , and who are racially distinct (through both ancestry and territory) from Europeans. Note than only Mexican-Americans who have been here for considerable time and who speak English identify has Chicano, whereas more recent immigrants (including those who are indigenous) do not.
Ex: Stephen asserts that the term and category “Chicano” is “born of social struggles and activism” (Stephen 2007: 227) that reflects a different understanding and experience of “being indigenous” than had previously been experienced by many Mixtec or Zapotec migrants, but that nonetheless has “strongly influenced popular American culture and the kinds of social fields migrants live and work in” (Stephen 2007: 225). |
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Latinoization
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The rise of high Latino populations around the United States.
Ex: Stephen attributes the Lationoization of the United States to “SAW” legislation, which legalized many migrant workers from Mexico. Once legal citizens many moved all around the country in search for better wages. This led to more and more migrants to moving to where their family members held jobs: “Those who went to new locations in search of better jobs became anchors for others in their hometown” (Stephen 2007:145). |
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Mestizo
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An individual of combined European and Amerindian descent. A culturally constructed “mixed race” category. IN Mexico, as in most of Latin American, many perceive mestizos to be superior to "indigenous peoples."
In the Mexican context, indigenous peoples are ranked lower than Mestizos. Mestizos are traditionally ranked lower than “White Spaniards”. Despite the fact that these ranking are arbitrary and cultural, they have real implications in the sociopolitical and economic force of each actor (Stephen 2007: 209) |
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Cultural Citizenship
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A model for anthropologists to understand how Mexican migrants in the United States claim rights for themselves and their children and are recognized as legitimate political subjects based on their cultural and economic contributions to the United States rather than their official legal status. Cultural citizenship involves everyday activities through which marginalized social groups can claim recognition, public space, and eventually specific rights.
Ex: Stephen looks at grassroots organizations that facilitate Mexican immigrants through interlinked networks. These relationships reshape traditional notions of territory and politics because through the organizations immigrants strive to obtain rights that are not granted to them formally by the law. When they have these rights the immigrants develop a “presence” in the country they are inhabiting which allows them to form citizen rights as cultural citizens. (Stephen 2007:236, 239) |
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Diaspora
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A scattered population who have a common place of origin. The word has come to refer particularly to historical mass dispersions of an involuntary nature. Some diaspora communities maintain strong political ties with their homeland.
Ex. Stephen talks about digital border crossing which are established by trans border communities in order to maintain contact with family members and friends in different locales. A physical diaspora is created by trans-border communities and a virtual diaspora is created by their use of the internet. (Stephen 2007: 280, 281) |
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Virtual Diaspora
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Immigrant use of cyberspace for the purpose of engaging in or participating in online interactional transactions. These interactions can be with members of the diasporic group living in the same country or foreign countries, with individuals in the homeland, or with non-members of the group in the hostland and elsewhere. A virtual diaspora is an extension of a real diaspora. Virtual diasporas are sustained through real diasporas and therefore they are not separate entities, but rather reliant on one another.
Ex: Stephen recognizes that the Mexican immigrants use virtual diaspora to work out their ethnic identities, create a political presence in the Mexican and United States cyberspace, and as a tool to exert political pressures on the US and Mexican governments (Stephen 2007: 280, 281). |
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Presence
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The condition of being an actor even though one is initially lacking power.
“In the context of a strategic space of the global city people like transborder indigenous Mexican migrants can “acquire a presence in the broader political process that escapes the boundaries of of the formal polity. Their presence signals the possibility of a politics” (Stepehen 2007:237) |
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Red Card Wage Campaign
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A campaign by a Mexican immigrant rights group to help farm-workers keep track of their earnings.
“Workers were given red cards to fill in with their daily earnings. totals were kept and compared to spay stubs. PCUN organizers distributed over 10,000 time cards and were able to document 250 cases in which workers recieved less than minimum wage. PCUN filed wage claims with the Oregon Bureau of Labor and Industry for 40 workers and collectively they recieved more than 3,000 in illegaly witheld pay” (Stephen 2007 :245) |
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Panindigenous
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Forms of organization and identification that span across more than one single indigenous group, but that distinguish indigenous Mexican migrants from non-indigenous Mexican migrants (a distinction not made often in the past among migrants in the U.S.).
ex. “The ever-increasing presence of Mexican indigenous workers in the state of Oregon has resulted in two new forms of panindigenous organizing at the statewide level” (Stephen 2007:264). |
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Cooperative
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An autonomous group of an individuals who work together for mutual benefit.
EX: Teotitecos textile cooperatives work together for mutual economic benefit: “they pool their textiles to sell collectively, and frequently particiapte in workshops for weaving and dying techniques” (Stephen 2007: 277) |
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Virtual Transborder Communities:
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“The use of cyberspace by immigrants or descendants of an immigrant group for the purpose of participating or engaging in online interactional transactions” (Stephen 2007:281)
Ex: “Virtual transborder communities are extensions of real transborder communities” (Stephen 2007:281). Stephen argues that the communication virtual transborder communities offer can be used to negotiate ethnic identity by creating websites and images that can be used by both members of the tranborder community and other Mexican- Americans. |
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Parallel Transnational Participation
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Individuals who are active in more than one political political community, but whose organized communities do not themselves come togethor”(Stephen 2007: 316)
Ex: “The Mixtec indigenous farmworkers who participate simultaneously in PCUN and in the San Augustin Transborder Public Works Committee. The two organizations have not yet come togethor.” (Stephen 2007: 316) |
