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126 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Motor Systems
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Behavior: Reflexes, standing and posture, locomotion, manipulation and grasping, flying (if possible)
Local Processing: Spinal reflexes Central Processing: Central commands |
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Acts
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Locomotion: walking, running, swimming, flying
Acquired Skills: Speech, painting, sports, driving Species Specific Acts: hissing, sniffing, drinking |
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Electromyography - EMG
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Muscle contractions involves action potentials in the muscles.
This activity can be recorded with little needle electrodes or even electrodes like those you would use for EKG. |
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Movements
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Simple Reflex: Stretch, startle, eye blink
Posture and Postural adjustments: standing, lying, sitting Orienting Movements: head turning, eye fixation, ear movement |
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Open loop movement control
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-Ballistic, fast movements,
-No feedback -Often refined by learning and practice Ex) Throwing a frisbee at your head, you duck |
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Closed Loop movement control
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-Ramped, smooth movements, slow controlled
-Feedback and correction Ex) Driving a car control signal - keep the car on the right transducer - visual system error detector - perceptual system controller muscles of arms to steer car |
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Reaction Time
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-Time it takes to process sensory information
-Time to do integration (spinal or central) -Time to produce the output - press button |
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Will all reaction times be the same?
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NO
-There will be some variability within the same set of measures -If there is a different input then we also expect a different RT with its own variability -Reflex - 50ms -Visuomotor - 250 ms |
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Spinal Reflex
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Just goes to your spinal cord, but not all the way to the brain until after the reflex already happens then it registers in the brain
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Spinal Reflex Example
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When doctor hits your knee - when it gets to spinal cord, three differnt types of neurons are involved: muscle spindles and golgi tendons stretch. FIRST, they hit a sensory neuron (dorsal root ganglion), which sneds impulse to interneuron in spinal cord (interneuron relays message between sensory and motor neurons), two signals sent (one to contract and one to flex) --> affects two motor neurons.
Motor output comes out of ventral side and goes back to msucle that was tapped. Leg then jerks because quuadriceps and hamstring are stretched/contracted (antagonistic muscles). AFter spinal reflex to the musle, myosin binds to the actin -thick (myosin-top)/thin filament (actin -bottom) binding heads --> crawl along myosin - |
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Motor Unit and Fiber Types
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Motor Unit
-Large alpha MN's, Large IR, high thresholds -Small alpha MN's, small IR, low thresholds Fiber Types in Skeletal muscle -Fast, white, anerobic, strong, fatigue easily -Slow, red, aerobic, weak, fatigue slowly |
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Muscle Contraction
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-Action potential in muscle
-Release of Ca+ from SR -Troponin, active, and myosin interact -Movement of cross bridges - actin and myosin -Muscle shortening - contraction -Relaxation - active reuptake of Ca++ |
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Diseases of Motor System
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Muscle dystrophy
-Duchenne's dystrophy x-chromosome linked Myasthenia Gravis -Antibodies against ACh receptor Polio -Virus, motoneuron degeneration ALS -Motoneuron degeneration Parkinson's Disease -Substantia nigra and DA Huntington's Disease -Basal ganglia degeneration -Chromosome 4, HD Gene Cerebellar dysfunction -Balance and coordination Cortical dysfunction -Accidents, stroke |
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Three Main Parts of the brain involved in motor planning and control
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Cortex
Basal Ganglia Cerebellum |
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Motor Pathways
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Cortex
-Primary motor cortex - motor executive -Association cortex -abiliity to initiate movmenets -planning of motor movements |
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Cortex
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Movement of muscle groups and joints
Directional movements of limbs |
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Damage to SMA and PMA
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Lesions or damage to SMA results in inability to make intentional movements
-thinking about a skilled movement produces activity in SMA Damage to the PMA (premortor area) results in lack of smoothing walking and coordination between the two hands |
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Basal Ganglia
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Movement modulation
-Caudate -putamen - Huntington's disease: GABA cells - loss of inhibition -globus pallidus -Substantia nigra - parkinson's disease: dopamine deficiency L dopa treatment |
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Cerebellum
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-Receives information from muscle and joint resepctors
-Receives input from cerebral cortex -Feedback control of complex movements -Motor learning - prism adaptation -Skilled movements |
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Main parts summary
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cortex: stores memory movement, plans/directs the movement
basal ganglia: adjusts movement cerebellum: fine motor control, coordination, balance |
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Muscle contraction (actin/myosin)
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Contraction happens because ACh is sent out - opens channels and potential is brought, calcium stores are open in muscle, binds to myosin heads, sticky enough so actin heads can bind to it. Actin moves along myosin pulling it together
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Four Stages of reproductive behavior
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Attraction
Appetitive Copulation Postcoupulatory |
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Attraction
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Visual signs
-sex skin in apes, feathers in birds Olfactory cues -Pheromones in many animals Auditory Calls -Rats produce high frequency calls |
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Appetitive
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Sending signal that you're ready Ex)sending out pheromones, singing a song
-Help sustain interaction so tht it leads to cpulation |
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Copulation or Coitus
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Once the female is receptive - lordosis (female changes her position so it's easier for male to have sex) - the male inserts hsi penis - called intromission
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Copulatory Behavior
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Refractory period - between inromission, there is a period of inactivity
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Postcopulatory
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Females like to talk, cuddling, dogs get into a lock position
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Testosterone
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Everyone has it, btu males have it in greatr contenctrations. it's what makes them grow facial hair, pubert
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Estrogen
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Everyone has it, but females in greater concentration
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Pheromones
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Chemical signals, but how are they different from hormones?
Hormones send outisde of body to animals around you. Humans dont use it as much as lower primates, rats, etc. Humans are much more of a visual type of people Two Ex where pheremmones are used by human females: Ex) Febales can identify whcih shirts are males/females based on smell 2- group of girls living together end up cycling at the same time Pheromone receptors in rats: vomeronasal receptor - underneath where we smell odors |
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Brain Areas involved in Sexual behavior - FEMALES
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-Hypothalamus
-VMH (ventral medial hypothalamus) 1) High numbers of estrogen and progesterone sensitive neurons 2) Lesions abolish lordosis 3) Implants with estrogen restores lordosis |
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Brain Areas involved in Sexual behavior - MALES
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-Hypothalamus
-MPOA (medial preoptic area) 1) high numbers of steorid sensitive neurons 2) Lesions abolish copulation 3) Implants with androgens reverses the effects of lesions |
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Sexual Orientation
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Social Influences
-Rat mother senses her male offspring and increased licking results in altered brain structures Gonadal Influences -Sexual dimorphism in POA of the hypothalamus of rats |
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POA and Sexual Orientation
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Major difference in POA for homo vs. heterosexuals
-This area can be changed in the womb or changed in childhood or adulthood b/c it is a very plastic area LARGER in heterosexual males |
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Food Intake and regulation
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Why do we need food?
-Energy, growth, maintenance, and repair Requirements -Essential amino acids, fats, and carboyhydrates Storage: carboyhydrates -Glycogen in liver --> glucose (energy) -Fats in adipose tissue |
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Glucose and Glycogen Regulation
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With insulin from pancreas
Glucose (energy) --> Glycogen in liver --> glucagon (pancrease) |
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What makes us eat?
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Social conditions
-Learning and meal time -People adjust meal size -Animals adjust the time between eating -Other pepole eating -Smell of food What is necessary for diet -Specific diet -all nutrients frmo diet -Unrestricted diet - need variety of food to get all nutrients Metabolic Factors -Hunger and the depletion of metabolic reserves -Glucostatic hypothesis Lower glucose by insulin injection -> hunger and eating |
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What makes us eat? - Insulin Release
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Glucodetectors in liver
Conditioned release by food Gut hormones CCK Diabetes mellitus -In diabetics high glucose but always hungry |
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What makes us stop eating?
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Monitoring the food value in the stomach
Small intestine and liver |
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What makes us eat? hormones and eating control
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Leptin - Can reduce factors that increase weight
-produced by fat tissue Gherlin - induces hunger and promotoes weight gain LEPTIN (circulating in bloodstream, goes to hypothalamus and sitmulates you to stop eating), gherlin (sent to hypothalamus and stimulates you to eat more) -Controlled by social factors and cultural diet -metabolic factors that control diet: insulin (controls blood glucose level..high after eating a meal), glucostasis -Glucose is important to blood sttream - brain food - need glucose to survive |
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Eating Disorders
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Anorexia nerviosa
-Loss of appetite? -People enjoy or engage in foold related activity -Insulin in response to food -treatment Bulimia Nerviosa Binge Eating -Obesity Metabolism - learned, acquired, innate |
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Body Temperature regulation
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Endotherms
-High level of "O2 activity" Exotherms Factors in temperature regulation -brown fat - adipose tissue -body surface/weight -adaptations -behavioral control |
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Adaptations to Temperature
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Ears
Fur Feathers Antifreeze Shape |
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Behavioral Response to temperature
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Marine iguana
snakes coil bees shiver and shake humans, huddle, clothes rat pups ground squirrel |
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Body Temperature regulation - brain sites
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Hypothalamus
-Lesions, heating and cooling -LH lesions abolish behavioral response -POA lesions abolish autonomic response Brain stem Spinal cord -Receptors at the body surface |
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Fluid balance
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We have to lose water
-Urine 1.4 liters/day -Evaporation .9 liters/day -Feces .2 liters/day Therefore we need to restore it fluid intake 1.2 liters food 1.0 liters oxidation of food .3 liters |
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Types of Thirst
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Hypovolemic Thirst - Baroreceptors in major lood vessols detect any pressure from gluid loss
Osmotic Thirst - Osmosensory neurons in the brain detect any increased osmolaity of extracellular fluid |
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Endocrine vs Neuroendocrine communication
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Neuron Communication: Across a synaptic cleft, short distance communication. If you have a synaptic cleft, pre/post synaptic cleft
Endocrine Communication: deals with glands in your body (thyroid, pituitary, pineal, sex) - let out hormones into blood stream, and they go throughout entire body finding targers. Targets have receptors for these hormones Neuroendocrine Communication: Cause hormones to be released as a result of neuron stimulation Ex) Hypothalamus - controls pituitary gland...lets out hormones through rest of body according to what hypothalamus tells it to do -Sex hormones can go right through cell membrane because cell membrane is semi permeable. Water soluble substances can't go through it. fat CAN go through it. Hormones are steroids AND can go right through cell membrane, straight to nucleus Insulin: made of proteins (string of amino acids) - attaches to cell membrane receptor (doesn't go through) |
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Rhythms - Periods
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Minutes/hours - ultradian
ex) feeding/activity day - circadian ex) sleep/wake days/month - infradian ex) menstrual cycle, seasonal disorders seaosnal - cidannual |
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Rhythms - Uses
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Anticipate changes in the environment
-Eating -Entrainment, move the waking period in synchrony with the seasonal change in light dark periods |
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Rhythms - measuring body function or behavior
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-Temperature
-Hormone levels in the blood such as growth hormone -Sleep/Wake cycle -Activity -Sexual activity -Hibernation -Singing in crickets -Migration -Growth of testes in birds |
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Sleep Functions
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Conservation of energy
-SWS and body function Avoidance of predators -Diurnal vs nocturnal animals Body restoration -Sleep deprivation and REM Learning |
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Sleep disorders
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Sleep dysfunction
-Sleepwalking, bedwetting, terror and nightmares, insomia -Sleeping pills Insomnia |
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EEG
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Electroencephalaogram can be used to record brain activity
There are distinct EEG patterns in the sleep wake cycle |
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SW vs. REM
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Sleep wake (4 types): heart rate slow, more normal body temp, muscle tone low, slow eye movment, don't dream, growth hormone high low brain firing
REM: fast heart rate, body temp higher, muscle tone completely elminiated, rapid eye movement, dream, growth hormone low, increased brain firing |
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SCN (Superchiasmic nucleus)
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Located in POA of hypothalamus. Right behind optic chiasm. Stimulated by light (takes signals from retina)
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Clock/Cycle transcriptional cascade:
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Two transcription factors (factors that turn on genes). Turns on PER and CRY gene and they start transcribing gene, comes out of nucleus, and makes protein. Proteins in high concentrationa nd bind together. Goes back into nucleus and stops transcription of genes. Circadian rhythym controlled by transcription
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Drugs and Behavior
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Definition of dug
-Modifies body functions such as CNS Definition of psychoactive drug -Affects the CNS altering perception and/or consciousness Licit drugs, illicit drugs, OTC drugs |
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Drugs and Society
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Opium
-Illegal today, btu in 1700-1800s legal and viewed as a panacea Alcohol -1800s legal, 1920s illegal, 1930 legal Tobacco -1700s illegal in Russia, India, China, but legal everywhere today |
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Classes of Drugs
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Cannabis
Stimulants - cocaine, amphetamines Hallucinognes - LSD, mescaline Depressants - barbituates, alcohol, Narcotics - opium, heroin Tobacco Inhalants/Solvents - glue, gasoline, pain thinner Designer Drugs - PCP, MDMA |
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Cannabis Effects on Body/Mind
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Body:
-High HR, vasodilation and reduced BP -Can be aphrodisiac at low doses Mind: -Euphoric effect, altered perceptions -Hunger -High doses give hallucinogenic "high" in some individuals |
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Stimulants - types
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Major:
-Amphetamines -Cocaine Minor: -Caffeine |
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Stimulants - Effects
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-Increased HR, BP, BR
-Decrease appetite -Inability to sleep -Sweating, dry mouth, muscle twitching -Decreased fatigue -Increased confidence -Increased alertness -Restlessness, irritation -Apprehension, distrust -Behavioral streotypy -Hallucinations -Psychocic |
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Why do people smoke tobacco?
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-Relaxing
-Decreases tension, anxiety, anger -Satisfies a craving, habit -Stimulation, arousal, energy -Maniupulation -Weight loss or control -Peer/family influences Why people are dependent? -Rapid reinforced -Rapid metabolism and repeated use -Satisfies needs -Social pressure -Pharmacalogical Effects -No effect on performance |
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Hallucinogens
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Synthetic
-LSD -MDMA Ecstasy -PCP Naturally Occurring: -Mescaline -Mushroom -Belladonna What are they? Substances that alter sensory processing, casuing perceptual disturbances, changes in thought processing and depersonalization A psychedlic and psychotogenic |
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Hallucinogens ECSTASY Body vs Mind
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Body:
-Dilated pupils -Dryness, mouth and throat -Teeth clenching -Muscle aches -Fatigue -Insomnia -Hypothermia Mind: -Euphoria -Increased touch sensitivity -Reduced inhibitions |
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Hallucinogens PCP Body vs Mind
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Body:
-Like alcohol intoxication -Numbness -Sweating, increased BP and HR -Anethesisa Mind: -Feeling of power -Perceptual distortion - |
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Depressants - types
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-Alcohol
-Baribituates -Benzodiazpines - valium |
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Depressants - Valium
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-Acts ads sedatives and provide relaxation
-Relieve anxiety - anxiolytics -Induce Sleep - hypnotics and amnesia barbituates reduce REM sleep, unsatisfactory seep benzodiazepines have less effect on REM sleep and give restful satisfying sleep |
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Narcotics - Types
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-Heroin
-Morphine -Methadone -Codeine |
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Narcotics - Effects on Body/Mind
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Body:
-Pain Relief -Cough suppression -Antidiarrhea Mind: -Analgesia -Euphoria -Relieves stress -Dependence |
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Drugs and Synapses - How can we alter transmission?
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Presynaptic - release of transmitter
Postsynaptic - Binding of transmitter to receptor Inactivation and reuptake - change in transmitter action or availability |
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Drugs and Transmitter Pathways
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Dopaminergic - Parkinsons, Scizophrenia, REWARD
Noradrenergic - Modulation of behavior, wakefulness Cholinergic - Attention, modulation of learning and memory, sleep functions Serotonergic - Sleep , antidepressants |
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Reward and Brain
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Reinforcing effects are due to increase the release of dopamine from the ventral tegmental area
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Drugs and Synapses
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Presynaptic - Change rate or amount
Postynaptic - Enhance or reduce binding, opening time Inactivation and reuptake - Change rate of inactivation, alter reuptake |
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Drugs and Receptors - Two types
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Ionotropic and Metabotropic
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Pathways and their transmitters
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General - Glutamate and GABA
Noradrenergic - Adrenaline, noradrenaline Cholinergic - ACh Dopaminergic - Dopamine Serotonergic - Serotonin |
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How do amphetamines work?
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-Increase noradrenaline dopamine release
-NA increases HR BP and breathing -Affect appetite center in the hypothalamus -Blocks monoamine transporters |
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How does cocaine have its effects?
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-Blocks monoamine transporters (dopamine, NE)
-INcreases the amount of available transmitter enhancing the transmitters effect) |
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How does tobacco work?
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Nicotine (Cholinergic agonist)
-nicotonic receptors for ACh -Neuromuscular junction -Sympathetic ganglia -CNS -Lose appetite - feel more alert |
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Hallucinogens and the Brain
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LSD- Binds to serotonin receptor
Mescaline - affects noradernaline system PCP - Antagonist for NMDA receptor |
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Alcohol and the Brain
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Low concentrations: increases dopamine release
HIgh concentrations: potentiates the GABA receptor and results in synaptic inhibition |
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Interaction of Drugs
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Valium and alcohol dangerous to take at the same time b/c alchohol and valium slows down CNS and brain activity
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Interaction of drugs
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Treatment for alcohol withdrawal is often the benzodiazepines
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Narcotics and the Brain
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-The receptors for natural opiates and exogenous agonists (morphne) are in the pain pathways
-Agonist to the u receptor |
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HM - Anterograde Amnesia
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Post surgery: lost 3 years of memory (retrograde amnesisa)
-Completely lost the ability to make new memories (anterograde amnesia) -Retains the ability to remember over seconds/minutes but not over long periods |
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Two Kinds of Memory
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Declarative: Things you know that you can tell others
Nondeclarative (procedural): Things you know that you can show by doing |
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KC - Lesion patient
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-Motorcycle accident caused injury to frontal and parietal regions
-Cannot recall a single episode from anytime in his life (episodic memory). Cannot form new memories of events -BUT retains knowledge of facts (semantic memory) and is able to learn new facts with repetition |
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Memory - Classification
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Episodic - Events that took place in your life
Semantic - Facts/general knowledge Spatial- Where something is Response recognition - Sequences Object recognition - grandmother's face Emotional memory - fear of snakes |
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Learning - Enrichment and Neurogenesis
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Environmental enrichment enhances neurogenesis and learning
-Endogenous hippocampal neurogenesis |
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What component of the Enriched Environment enhances neurogenesis?
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-learning opportunities
-Physical activity -Social interaction |
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Seven Sins of Memory
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Transience - decrease accessibility over time
Absentmindedness - forgetting to do things Blocking - inaccessibility of memory Misattribution - attributing to the wrong source Suggestibility - implantation of memories Bias - distortion related to beliefs Persistence - inability to forget traumatic events |
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How do we localize function in the brain?
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1)Lesions in human patients (H.M., K.C.)
-- Imaging studies in humans 2) Animal models with lesions 3) Drug infusion into particular brain areas 4) Electrophysiology - Recording from different brain areas with electrodes; correlating firing patterns of neurons with stimuli and behavior |
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Learning and memory - brain regions
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Episodic - parahippocampal & entorhinal cortex
Semantic - medial temporal cortex Spatial - hippocampus Response recognition - caudate Object recognition - sensory areas Emotional memory - amygdala |
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Fear Conditioning
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Memories (about fear in rats) can be “erased”
by combining recollection with a protein synthesis block Suggests protein synthesis is required for memory maintenance - previously unknown Can this be used in humans some day to selectively erase memories? patients that have undergone traumatic events Schacter’s sin of persistence |
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Memory processes
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Short, intermediate, long
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Types of Learning
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Habituation, sensitization, associative
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Types of synaptic modification
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short term change - NMDA receptor activation
intermediate term - NMDA receptor activation -Long term structural changes - requires protein synthesis |
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Habituation
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Simple learning, non-associative
Eg. repeated puffs of air ont he eye lid people will cease to blink ex) In the Aplysia, repeated touching of the mantle will cause reduction in the withdrawal of the siphon and the gill |
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Sensitization
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If a strong stimulus is given, such as a mild shock to the tail, then the response to a light touch will be enhanced
eg. a strong touch to the head will cause the reflex withdrawal of the siphon and the gill to be stronger |
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Associative learning: Classical conditioning
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Unconditioned Stimulus, Conditioned stimulius, Unconditioned reponse, conditioned response
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Synaptic Modification/Plasticity
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Short and intermediate term- NDMA receptor activation
Long term- protein synthesis, LTP |
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Broca's Aphasia
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-Difficulty producing speech
-Reading/writing impaired -May not be able to name persons or objects -Automatic speech preserved -Understanding is mostly intact |
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Language: lateralization
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sensory, motor cortex: two of everything
-Most people process language best in the left hemisphere |
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Wernicke's Aphasia
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-Fluent verbal output
-Sentences seem empty of content -Speech comprehension is limited |
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Aphasia Summary
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Broca
-Nonfluent, comphrension intact -left frontal corte Aphasia -Fluent; minimal comphrenesion -left temporla cortex |
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ASL
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-Lesions show similar deficits in language to hearing patients
-Brain imaging shows similar brain regions are involved |
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Electrical Stimulation
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-Used before surgery to locate language areas
-Stimulation interferes with naming, reading, speech production, verbal memory, language comprehension |
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Dyslexia
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-Developmental or acquired
-Exchange letters, echange related words -Ectopias: nests of extra cells -Micropolygryia: excessive folds |
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William's Syndrome
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"elflike" facial features
-Heart, blood vessel problems -Mild to moderate mental retardation -Unafraid of strangers, polite, endaring -Musical talent -Bad at math, fine motor tasks, spatial relations |
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Frontal Lobes
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-One third of human cerebral cortex
-Motor, premotor areas -Prefrontal cortex |
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Phineas Gage
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-Survived massive lesion of prefrontal cortex
-Personality changed dramatically Before: industrious, serious, and energetic After: irresponsible and thoughtless |
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Hemispheric Speclization
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Each hemisphere specialized for some tasks and processes those tasks more effectively
-no hemispheric domniance -Split brain individuals reveal these specilizations |
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Components of Emotion
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-Cognitive, the feeling or subjective experience
-Behavioral, physiological arousal - body response or "visceral aspects" of emotion -Evolutionary, actions such as defending or attacking and their role in survival ----if an individual has an apporpriate behavior pattern to danger it is more likely to survive. the evolutionary bilogists might argue the overall fear in some circumsances will the drive correct behavioral response pattern |
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Autonomic Nervous System
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-A set of ganglia outside the CNS
-Two divisions : sympathetic and parasympathetic -Two parts to each division: preganglionic and postganglionic |
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Cannon and Bard
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1. DIfferent emotions can accompany the same visceral changes
2. the emotional state is often experienced before the visceral changes |
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Schachter and Singer
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Injected volunteers with adrenaline
Group 1: told their heart would race -NO EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE WAS REPORTED Group 2: told that there would be no effect -SOME REPORTED EXPEREINCING EMOTIONAL FEELING but THE EMOTION EXPERIENCE DEPENDED ON CONTEXT -If they were with a happy person, they experienced happy emotions, angry with angry..placebo, no or weak emotional response |
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Prefrontal Cortex and emotion
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Frontal lobe patients don't show a galvanic skin response (Sweating of the palm) or GSR (galvanic skin response) when they view pictures with emotional content but normal subjects do show a large reponse
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Frontal lobes, GSR, and risk
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When subjects without lesions are asked to make choices about cards in a game of risk they chose to make less risky decisions. if they make risky choices they show an GSR increase before considering taking the risky card. Called an anticipatory GSR response.
But for frontal lobe patients, althouth they, like normal subjects showed a GSR spike when they saw the card they didnt show the anticipatory spike |
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What are the brain areas underlying emotion?
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Decorticate Rage
-Dogs without cortex show spontaneous "rage" behavior Papez's and McLean's Limbic system -Hypothalamus --> visceral responses -Cingulate cortex and hippocampus -Amygdala and anterior thalamus Kluver Bucy syndrome -Temporal lobe removal produced "taming" or "calming" effect in primates -no fear or aggression -removal of amygdala in monkeys makes them more social |
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Fear
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Seems to be common across species of mammals, from rats ot people
Physiological responses -Autonomic responses, HR, BP increase -Freezing |
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Fear and the Amygdala
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Amygdala
-Lesions of the central nucleus prevent BP increase and limit freezing -Lesions of lateral nucleus prevent learning the fear association -Humans with temporal lobe seizures have an intense fear before the seizure. stimulation of the amygdala induces the experience of fear -patients with damage don't react to negative facial expression -people exposed to a neutral tone paired with an unpleasantly loud tone have sweady hands, dry mouth, and perspiration. an emotional reponse. after pairing the neutral tone gives rise to the emotional response. -patients with amygdala damage do not show fear to the neutral tone afrer pairing even though they are consciously aware of the pairing |
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Symptoms of Mental Disorders
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deficient or inappropriate social behavior
illogical, incoherent or obsessional thoughts inappropriate emotional behaviors depression, mania, anxiety delusions and hallucinations |
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Scizophrenia
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-Disordered thought
Residual or negative symptoms: withdrawal, neglect and lack of affect Positive symptoms: -delusions, persecution, hallucinations |
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Brain Dysfunctions - Scizophrenia
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-Ventricles are enlarged in affected twin
-Increased thalamic size -Some people show changes in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus -Decreased cerebellar activity |
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Scizophrenia Treatment
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Anti-Psychotic Compounds
-Resperine- naturally occuring from snake root Dopamine hypothesis: -older neuroleptics bind to postsynaptic dopamine receptors Atypical antipsychotics -Clozapine |
