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111 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

Dura Mater

-Covers spinal cord


-tapers to coccygeal ligament


-epidural space seperates dura mater from walls of vertebral canal

Arachnoid

-Interior to dura mater are the subdural space, the arachnoid and the subarachnoid space


-Subarachnoid space contains CSF

Pia Mater

-Meshwork of elastin and collagen fibers


-Innermost meningeal layer


-Denticulate ligaments extend from pia mater to dura mater

Gray Matter

-cell bodies, unmyelinated axons, interneurons, and neuroglia

Posterior Gray Horn

-contains somatic and visceral sensory nuclei

Anterior Gray Horns

-deal with somatic motor control

Lateral Gray Horns

-contain visceral motor neurons

Gray Commissures

-Contain axons that cross from one side to the other

Ascending Tracts

-Relay information from the spinal cord to the brain


-all sensory tracts cross over at entry level or a few segments above medulla


-right side sensory inputs are interpreted by the left cortex

Descending Tracts

Carry information from the brain to the spinal cord


-Motor pathway carried by 2 or 3 neurons

Ascending Tracts: 1st Order

Sensory neurons with dendrite in spinal nerve and cell body in dorsal root ganglion

Ascending Tracts: 2nd Order

Cell bodies in cord or medulla

Ascending Tracts: 3rd Order

Cell bodies in thalamus and axons project to sensory cortex

Ascending Sensory Tracts: Lasciculus cuneatus

-Muscle position sense and fine touch of the upper limb


- 1st order to medulla -> 2nd order cross over in medulla to thalamus -> 3rd order to cortex

Ascending Sensory Tracts: Lateral Spinothalamic

-pain and temperature


-1st order to spinal cord -> 2nd order cross over in spinal cord to thalamus -> 3rd order to cortex

Descending Tracts: Pyramidal (cerebrum)

fine movement

Descending Tracts: Extra-pyramidal (cerebellum)

automatic mov't balance and muscle tone

Spinal Nerves:

Consist of:


-Epineurium, Perineurium, and Endoneurium


Naming:


-Cervical named for inferior vertebrae


-All other named for superior vertebrae


Formation: union of dorsal and ventral roots of SC


-Mixed after joining (sensory and motor)


-Each pair of nerves monitor one dermatome

Spinal Nerves: Dorsal Root

Sensory Neurons and dorsal root ganglia (contains cell bodies)

Spinal Nerves: Ventral Root

Cell bodies of motor neurons

White Ramus

Myelinated axons

Gray Ramus

Unmyelinated axons that innervate glands and smooth muscle

Dorsal Ramus

Sensory and Motor innervation to the skin and muscles of the back

Ventral Ramus

supplying ventrolateral body surface, body wall and limbs

Dermatome

Sensory nerves from skin

Nerve Plexus:

-complex interwoven network of nerves

-mixing of ventral rami in certain areas of vertebral column which supply skin and muscle appendages

Nerve Plexus: Cervical Plexus

-C1 to C5


-supplies parts of head neck and shoulders


-phrenic nerve: C3 to C5, keeps diaphragm alive


-damage to cord above C3 causes respiratory arrest

Nerve Plexus: Brachial Plexus

-C5 to T1


-Supplies shoulder and upper limb


-superior to 1st rib and under clavical


-Axillary n. = deltoid & teres m.


-Musculocutaneous n. = elbow flexors


-Radial n. = shoulder and elbow extensors


-Median & ulnar nn. = flexors of wrist & hand

Nerve Plexus: Lumbar Plexus

-L1 to L4


-Supplies abdominal wall, external genitals& anterior/medial thigh


-Injury to femoral nerve causes inability to extend leg& loss of sensation in thigh


-Injury to obturator nerve causes paralysis of thigh adductors

Nerve Plexus: Sacral Plexus

-L4 to L5 and S1 to S4


-anterior to sacrum


-suplies buttocks, perineum, and part of lower limb


-sciatic nerve (L4 to S3) supplies post thigh & all below knee


-Peroneal nere injury = foot drop or numbness


-Tibial nerve injury = calcaneovalgus (loss of function on anterior leg & dorsum of foot)

Sciatic Nerve

-Common nerve and tibial nerve behind the knee


-sciatica pain extends from butt down leg to foot


-may be sign of herniated disk

Sensory Neurons

deliver info to CNS

Motor Neurons

distribute commands to peripheral effectors

Interneurons

interpret info and coordinate responses

Neuronal Pools

-functional groups of interconnected neurons (interneurons)


-limited input sources and output destinations


-may stimulate or depress parts of brain or spinal cord

Divergence

-spreads stimulation to many neurons or neuronal pools in CNS

-Ex: Visual stimuli travels to brain & postural adjustments are made at same time

Convergence:
-Brings input from many sources to single neuron

-Dual control of breathing muscles -> voluntary & involuntary

Serial Processing:

-Moves information in single line

Parallel Processing:

-moves info along several paths simultaneously


-provides a means to have multiple responses to one stimuly (hand from hot stove and saying ouch)

Reverberation:

-positive feedback mechanism


-until fatigued or inhibited


-maintain consciousness and muscle coordination

Spinal Reflexes:

-Automatic responses coordinated with spinal cord


-produce simple and complex reflexes

Spinal Reflexes: Sensory

-10 mill


-deliver info to CNS

Spinal Reflexes: Motor

-about 1/2 mill


-deliver commands to peripheral effectors

Spinal Reflexes: Interneurons

-about 20 bill


-interpret, plan, coordinate signals in & out

Reflex arc: 1

Arrival of stimulus and activation of receptor

Reflex arc: 2

Activation of sensory neuron

Reflex arc: 3

Information Processing

Reflex arc: 4

Activation of motor neuron

Reflex arc: 5

Response by effector

Classifying Reflexes: Innate vs Acquired

Genetically determined vs. learned

Classifying Reflexes: Somatic vs. Visceral (autonomic)

skeletal muscle, superficial and stretch reflexes vs. actions of smooth and cardiac muscles glands and adipose tissue

\Classifying Reflexes: Monosynaptic vs polysynaptic

one synapse vs multiple synapses

Classifying Reflexes: Spinal vs. Cranial

Processing in the spinal cord vs brain

Monosynaptic Reflex:

-Stretch reflex

-automatically monitors skeletal muscle length and tone (patellar knee jerk)

Monosynaptic Reflex: Muscle spindles

-specialized sensory receptors which are contractile only at ends which are innervated by gamma motor neurons

Monosynaptic Reflex: Gamma motor neuron

-keeps muscle spindle slightly contracted to increase sensitivity via increasing impulses of afferent neuron

-Alpha motor neuron

Monosynaptic Reflex: Patellar Reflex

-Strike patella tendon -> stretches quads -> muscle spindle stimulated -> afferent neuron -> alpha motor neuron -> quad contracts -> extension of leg


-inhibits alpha motor neuron of antagonist muscles (hamstrings)

Polysynaptic Reflex:

-more complicated responses

-interneurons control more than 1 muscle group


-produces epsps or isps


ex. tendon reflex or withdrawal (flexor or crossed extensor reflex)

Polysynaptic Reflex: Characteristics

-involve pools of neurons


-are intersegmental in distribution


-involve reciprocal inhibition


-reverberating circuits -> prolong reflexive motor response


-several reflexes cooperate -> coordinated controlled response

Polysynaptic Reflex: tendon reflex

-prevents skeletal muscles from: developing too much tension, tearing or breaking tendons


-sensory receptors unlike muscle spindles or proprioceptor

Polysynaptic Reflex: Withdrawal Reflex

-Move body part away from stimulus (pain or pressure)


-Strength and extent of response: depends on intensity and location

Control of spinal reflexes:

-can facilitate or inhibit motor patterns based in spinal cord


-Motor control = series of interacting levels


-> monosynaptic reflexes are the lowest level


-> brain centers modulate or build on motor patterns are the highest


-reflexes can be inhibited

Control of Spinal Reflexes: reinforcement

-facilitation that enhances spinal reflexes

Brain:

-forms from the three swellings at the tip of the developing neural tube

Brain: Prosencephalon

-forms the telencephalon and eventually the cerebrum and diencephalon
Brain: Mesencephalon/Midbrain
-B/w diencephalon and pons

-two types of tissue


-nerve tracts connect, asc (SC to thalamus) and desc. (cerebral cortex to pons & SC)


-other nuclei: Red nucleus, substantia nigra, RAS headquarters (specialized area of reticular formation, alertness and attentiveness)

Brain: Rhombencephalon

-forms the metencephalon (cerebellum and pons) and myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)

Brain: Pons

-located under midbrain


-2 main nerve tracts: Longitudinal tracts (connect medulla and cerebrum) and Transverse (connect halves of cerebellum and brain stem)


-Relays sensory information to cerebellum and thalamus (for four cranial nerves)


-subconscious somatic and visceral motor centers


-Nuclei that help control respiration- apneustic and pneumotaxic

Brain: Medulla Oblongata

-connects brain to spinal cord


-relays sensory information to thalamus and to other portions of the brain stem


-autonomic centers for regulation of visceral function called olivary nuclei and cardiovascular and respiratory rythmicity centers (cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive system activites)


-reticlar formation begins in the medulla oblongata and extends into more superior portions of the brainstem.

Brain: Cerebrum

-Conscious thought processes, intellectual functions


-memory storage and processing


-conscious and sub regulation of skeletal muscle contractions

Brain: Cerebellum

-adjusts postural muscles and tunes on-going movement

-Cerebellar hemispheres: anterior & posterior lobes, Vermis, Flocculonodular lobe


-coordinates complex somatic motor patterns



-Superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles link cerebellum w. brains stem, diencephalon, cerebrum, and SC,-interconnects the two cerebellar hemispheres.

Brain: Diencephalon- Thalamus

-relay and processing centers for ascending sensory info


-coordinates the activites of the cerebral cortex and basal nuclei

Brain: Diencephalon- Hypothalamus

-centers controlling emotions (hunger, libido), autonomic functions (blood pressure, water, gi mobility and secretions)


-somatic motor activites at subcon level


-coor'd activites of endocrine and nervous


-secrete hormones- stim or inhib release, releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone


body temp, voluntary and autonomic functions, circadian cycles



Brain: ventricles
-central passageway of the brain enlarges to form ventricles

--contains CSF

Brain: CSF
-cushions delicate neural structures

-supports brain


-transports nutrients, chemical messengers, and waste products


--Pathway of CSF circulation= produced at Choroid plexus ->travels through the lateral and medial apertures to subarachnoid space-> diffuses across arachnoid granulations into superior sagittal sinus

Brain: Blood supply

-blood brain barrier isolates neural tissues from general circulation

-incomplete barrier:


-parts of hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, choroid plexus.

Brain: Cranial Meninges
-continuous with the three layers of spinal cord (dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater)

-folds of dura mater help stabilize the position of brian

Falx Cerebri

wall b/w 2 hemispheres of cerebrum

Tentorium Cerebelli

wall b/w cerebrum and cerebellum

Falx Cerebelli

wall b/w 2 hemisphere of cerebellum

Brain: Cerebral Cortex



-surface contains gyri and sulci fissures


-longitudinal fissure separates two cerebral hemispheres


-central sulcus separates front and parietal lobes


-temporal and occipital also bounded by sulci



Gray Matter

-primary motor cortex of the precentral gyrus, directs voluntary movements


-primary sensory cortex of the postcentral gyrus receives somatic sensory info -> touch, pressure, pain, taste, temp

Brain: Frontal Lobe

-Primary motor cortex of the precentral gyrus directs precise voluntary movement through motor neurons


-> Pyramidal cells -> descending pathway -> pyramidal tracts -> criss cross in medulla -> SC (lateral corticospinal tract)

Brain: premotor cortex

-coordinates sequential movement, like musical intruments


-lower in premotor area is speech(broca's)


-higher intel functions- neurons connect with both motor and sensory cortex area

Brain: Parietal Lobe

-Post Central Gyrus:


skin sensory impulses pain, temp, pressure


-Posterior to primary sensory area is somatic association area


-> tactile determination, taste, understanding speech



Brain: Temporal Lobe

-Auditory -> hearing


-Olfaction -> smell


-interpretation of auditory impulse, reading, and some memory



Brain: Occipital Lobe

-Visual area


-visual association area - interpretation

Brain: Association areas

-control our ability to understand sensory info and coordinate a response

1. somatic sensory association area


2. visual association area


3. somatic motor association area

Brain: general interpretive areas

-receives info from all sensory areas


-present only in left hemisphere

Brain: speech center

-regulates patterns of breathing and vocalization

Brain: Prefrontal cortex

-coordinates information from secondary and special association areas


-performs abstract intellectual functions

Brain: Hemispheric Differences

-Left hemisphere typically contains general interpretative and speech centers and is responsible for language based skills


-right hemisphere is typically responsible for spatial relationships and analyses

Brain: white matter of the cerebrum

-myelinated tracts, and Contains:


-association fibers-> connects and transmits impulses between gyri in SAME hemisphere


-commisural fibers-> corpus callosum and anterior/posterior commisure connects/transmits impulses between gyri of opposite hemisphere


-projection-> descending motor, ascending sensory (then criss cross)

Brain: Basal Nuclei/ganglia

-caudate nucleus


-globus pallidus


-Putamen: control muscle tonw and coordinate learned gross movement patterns

Briain: Diencephalon- Epithalamus

another part

Limbic System:

-cerebral cortex diencephalon combined


-emotional responses (fear, anger, pleasure, etc)


-Structures: amygdaloid body, cingulated gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, fornix

Brain: Mesencephalon/Midbrain- Cerebral Peduncles

-gray matter nuclei


-2 pair called Corpora Quadrigemina


1. Superior Colliculi - coord mov't eye and head to visual stimuli


2. coord mov't head and trunk to sounds

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

-Measure brain activity


1. alpha waves - healthy resting adult


2. beta waves - concentrating adult


3. theta waves - normal children/frustrated adults


4. Delta waves - normal during sleep

Focus: Cranial nerves

12 pairs -> each attaches to the ventrolateral surface of the brainstem near the associated sensory or motor nuclei


-involve sensory and motor fibers of cranial nerves

Olfactory Nerves (I)

-carry sensory info responsible for the sense of smell


-synapse within olfactory bulb

Optic Nerves (II)

-carry visual info from special sensory receptors in eyes

Occulomotor nerves (III)

-Primary source of innervation for the 4 of the extraocular muscles

Trochlear Nerves (IV)

Innervate the superior oblique muscles

Trigeminal Nerves (V)

mices nerves with opthalmic, maxillary and mandibular branches

Abducens Nerve (VI)

innervated the lateral rectus muscles of the eye

Facial Nerves (VII)

-Mixed nerves that control muscles of face and scalp


-provide pressure sensations over the face


-receive taste info from the tongue

Vestibulocochlear neves (VII)

-vestibular branch monitors balance, position, and movements


-cochlear branch monitors hearing

-Glossopharyngeal nerves (IX)

-mixed nerves that innervate the tongue and pharynx


-control the action of swallowing

Vagus Nerve (X)

-mixed nerves


-vital to the autonomic control of visceral function

Accessory Nerves (XI)

-Internal branches: innervate voluntary swallowing muscles of the soft palate and pharynx


-External Branches: control muscles associates with the pectoral girdle

Hypoglossal Nerves (XII)

Provide voluntary motor control over tongue movement