Botany 100 Final Exam

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Pollination:

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Transfer of pollen from anthers to stigma.

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Outcrossing

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Transfer of pollen from one flower to the stigma of a flower of a different plant of the same species.

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Self incompatability

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mechanisms plants use to make sure they DON’T self-pollinate.
-inhibited pollen grain
-inhibited pollen tube

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some plants use _________ to achieve pollination

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abiotic means.
-wind or water

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The stigma of a plant is a ____ target so ____ amounts of pollen are required

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small

large

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Co-evolutionary associations:

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Alliances that have influenced the evolution of two or more partners.

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Wind is effective when many plants of the same species occur _____

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very close together
-temperate forests
-grasslands

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Pollination co-evolution:

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Flowering plants & insects, birds, bats & some mammals.

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Self incompatability

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mechanisms plants use to make sure they DON’T self-pollinate.
-inhibited pollen grain
-inhibited pollen tube

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Reduced perianth

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: no petals b/c they get in the way of wind pollination.

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Animal pollinator benefits:

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-offers precision
-high-fidelity services (less pollen required.)

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flavonoids colors

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purple, pink, blue

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Nectar

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sugar-rich solution produced in glands known as nectaries.

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Protein-rich pollen and ___ are possible food rewards

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necter

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Fragrences include:

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Terpene flowery or animal sex attractant scents
and
protein breakdown products:
! carrion or dung odors.!

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Some pollinators need only _____ some need only ____ but bees need _____

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necter, pollen, both

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beetle pollinated flowers

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–large and often flat offer easy access
-strong odors
-white and purple are common colors
-some are thermiogenic (heat-producing)
Example: Magnolia and skunk cabbage

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Reduced perianth

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: no petals b/c they get in the way of wind pollination.

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Animal pollinator benefits

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-offers precision
-high-fidelity services so less pollen required.

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Flowers and pollinators have coordinated traits known as

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pollination syndromes

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1. precision

Advantages

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a. insect sizes closely match those of flowers and their parts.
b. bees, birds and bats are powerful fliers that can transport pollen between widely separated flowers.

!Particularly valuable when flowers of the same species are widely separated, i.e. deserts and tropical forests. !

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2. Constancy/Fidelity:

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attraction, reward, blossom intel

a. Plants attract pollinators by flower scent, color, flower
shape and inflorescence type.
b. nutritional rewards tailored to favored pollinators
c. Animals can learn the characteristics of rewarding flowers and preferentially visit those. Called “blossom intelligence”

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flavonoid colors

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blue, purple or pink

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color of betalains (alkaloids)

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Yellow, orange or red

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carotenoids

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Yellow or orange

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Flowering plants typically offer ______to pollinators

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food rewards

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Temperate Forests (importance of)

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-lumber and paper industries

-long-term carbon storage in wood helps to prevent global warming.

-Co-evolutionary interactions support biodiversity.

-temperate forest plants adapted to: cold winters & competition for light

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-deciduous habit

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trees, shrubs and perennial herbs drop leaves in fall;

!aids in water-conservation and avoiding snow damage!

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Spring ephemerals

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are herbaceous plants that grow, flower and set seed within a short “window of light opportunity” before forest trees leaf out i.e. dicentra, trout lily, bloodroot.

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The Hubbard Brook ecosystem level experiment:

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1) water and mineral nutrient budgets for undisturbed temperate forest
2) determine the effect of clear-cutting (vegetation removal) on water and mineral nutrient budget
3) apply results to forest management.

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Air pollution --> ?

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Acid Rain

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Acid Rain:

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-positively-charged ions (including those needed as nutrients by plants) bind to negatively-charged soil particles.

-industrial air pollution contains sulfer dioxide (so2) and nitrous oxide (no)x

-dissolve in the atmosphere and become sulfuric acid and nitric acid and basically become acid.
The H+ (hydrogen ion) falls to earth as acid rain.
! The greater the concentration of H+ in ain, the greater the acidity of rain (the lower the pH).

Rain with pH < 7 is acidic.
H+ is a cation which competes with soil cations such as Ca+, K+, Na+ for binding to soil particles.

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Tropical Rain Forests:

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-Occur in areas of the world having high human populations.
-typically doesn’t support temperate-style agriculture.
-harbor much of earths biodiversity and influence climate on a worldwide basis.

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Q: Why are tropical forets so unusually high in biodiversity?

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1. old biomes – 200 mil years to 60 of the profs age.. have accumulated ancient and more recent organisms.
2. year-round growing cycle

3. layering of plants (stratification) provides many combinations of light temperate, humidity and nutrient conditions. Basically stratification is the “canopy” triple canopy etc.
layering is an adaptation to competition for light, which arises when vegetation is very dense.

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Corollary

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removal of tropical vegetation results in temperature increase and decrease of rainfall and humidity.

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Characteristics of tropical vegetation

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-tall
-evergreen
-far richer in species than temperate forests.

Some species are endemic – occur only in restricted areas.

Locally rare and/or endemic species are particularly vulnerable to extinction.

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Niche

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Def: includes all the abiotic and biotic factors that affect a population.

Example: reef-forming corals. Require higher than 18 degrees, lower than 36, light for symbiotic algae, constant salinity and waves.

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Desert physical characteristics:

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-30 degrees north and south
-Relatively young; since last ice age
-high temperature
-low rainfall, unevenly distributed throughout year; could be 1 or 2 major rainfalls.
-high evaporation from land and plant surfaces (transpiration

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Plant adaptations to deserts (strategies a, b . . . etc) :

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A. some use deep groundwater available throughout the year (trees with deep taproots)
B. grow only when water is available, become dormant when it is not i.e. desert annuals.
C. Store water in thick leaves or stems (succulents) Pleating within cacti show if plant has water or not.

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Allelopathy,

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! Inhibition of seed germination and growth of seedlings within a sphere of chemical influence emanating from roots !

Helps to space plants as a way to avoid competition for water

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Causes of desertification:

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Overgrazing and removal of trees and shrubs for cooking fires. Removes transpirational leaf surface so local rain clouds don’t form.
(contributes to famines in east Africa)

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conifers

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-gymnosperms
-useful b/c of good lumber

-Conifer forests dominate high altitude high latitude b/c of the hot / cold conditions?
-abundant.

!basically a big fucking tree!

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SEED EVOLUTION:

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Step 1: heterospory – evolved multiple times.

Step 2: retain megaspores on parent sporophyte by enclosing in leaf-like integuments to form an ovule.

step 3?

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ADVANTAGES OF SEEDS:

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1) vulnerable haploid gametophyte is protected
2) liquid water is not needed for fertilization. Plants can reproduce in relatively dry habitats.
3) Seed dormancy is possible. Some seeds can survive for THOUSANDS of years.
4) Seed nutrients allow germination in shade. Seedlings can survive beneath taller plants

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ovary --> ?
Ovule --> ?

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fruit
seed

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seed dispersal

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Advantages to plants:
a. reduces competition between parent and it’s progeny.
b. reduces the probability that seed predators will find all the seeds of any one species.
c. allows colonization of new areas / expands plants / forest / habitat.

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Types of fruit/seed dispersal.

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a. abiotic – wind or water. Adaptive structures such as wings or parachutes develop from seed coat or ovary well.
b. Biotic – animals
c. fruit ingestion

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Color Cues:

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Plants with mature fruits (mature seeds) advertise using fruit color changes.
-immature color: green.
-Mature color: red, yellow, orange, blue, black.
! Colored fruits are also more visible against a leafy background.

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! Most mammals can’t distinguish red from green and blue. They have dichromatic color vision.
T/F

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True

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1. summer-ripening fruits attract

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birds, provide carbohydrate reward.
a. Examples: blueberries, cherries, strawberries, blackberries

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2. Fall Ripening fruits attract migrating birds

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a. Require more energy than resident birds. Co-evolved fruits are 15-60% lipids.
b. Lipids contain 2x energy content of carb
c. Examples: sassafrass, dogwood, magnolia.
d. NOT preadapted for humanfood.

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3. Lipid-rich fruits are much more vulnerable to rot, so plants that can produce them use:

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a. foliar fruit flags – leaves that change color early and attract airborne migrant birds to fruits.
b. Examples: sumac, wild grape, Virginia creeper.