Body & Mind

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Cells:

amino acids- 3 types

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non-polar side chains

polar side chains

electrically charged side chains

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Essential amino acids:

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humans can produce 10/20 amino acids. The others must be supplied in the food we eat, every single day, as the body does not store excess for later.

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what happens if we don't get all of our amino acids?

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without them, we can't make protein, so we can't build muscle, which leads to degradation, which can lead to death.

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Hemoglobin protein: consists of 4 polypeptide chains

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2 alpha and 2 beta.

peptide bond: the covalent bond that holds amino acids together.

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Sickle-Cell Anemia

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-a mutation in the amino acid substitution in the beta chain.

-hemoglobin tends to clump together with red blood cells [when there's no oxygen] which causes the abnormal sickle shape.

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Malaria-

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relationship between those with sickle cell and malaria:

SC is a mutation against the malaria virus. the virus can't proliferate with an abnormal blood cell.

This is an example of natural selection creating a defense against malaria. No longer needed in countries without malaria; those with SC no longer outlive general population

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Structure and function of hemoglobin:

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made up of separate globin structures

-distributes oxygen all over the body

-iron containing protein

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Most cells have the same components starting with a nucleus and cytoplasm which is contained in the...

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cell membrane, which helps regulate what passes in and out.

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Nucleus-

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contains chromosomes which are the cells genetic material and a nucleolus which produces ribosomes.

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Ribosomes-

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produce proteins which are packaged by the Golgi apparatus so that they can leave the cell

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The cytoplasm-

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consists of a fluid material and organelles which could be considered the cells organs.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum-

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transports materials within the cell.

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Mitochondria-

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generates energy for the cells activities.

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Lysosomes-

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contain enzymes that can break down particles entering the cell.

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Centrioles-

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participate in cell division.

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Chromosomes-

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They are the cells genetic material, made of DNA

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transcription-

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the first major step in gene expression in which the info coded in DNA is copied into a molecule of RNA.

-takes place in the nucleus

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Translation-

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the second major step in gene expression in which the instructions encoded in RNA are carried out by making a protein [polypeptide] or starting or stopping protein synthesis.

-takes place in the cytoplasm

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Gene expressions, Genome

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the human genome is organized in two sets of 23 chromosomes.

-average human gene has 3k base pairs.

- human genome contains ~25k genes which are less than 5% of the genomic material

-we have 2 copies of each gene- Alleles

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DNA components:

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Adenine

Guanine

Cytosine

Thymine

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DNA components as they come together to form nucleotides:

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G & C

A & T

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DNA structure - nucleotide

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-a building block of DNA [or RNA]

-one base - G. T. C. or A

-one phosphate molecule and one sugar molecule

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DNA structure- phosphodiester bond

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-link between the 3' carbon atom of one sugar molecule and the 5' carbon atom of another, this bond forms a structure called a polynucleotide.

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What is known as the "backbone" of a DNA molecule?

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the alternating sugar-phosphate arrangement that forms through a phosphodiester bond- AKA polynucleotides.

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DNA structure- Hydrogen bonds

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the double helical structure of DNA is largely due to the hydrogen bonding between its base pairs

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How does DNA get its double helix structure?

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It is a result of the previous mentioned bonds that take place.

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RNA-

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RNA acts as a copy of DNA to keep DNA safe.

-if DNA is damaged, the cell can die or mutate into a cancer cell.

-if the RNA mutates its ok because it is one dysfunctional protein but if the DNA is damaged then ALL proteins can become faulty.

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RNA and DNA differences-

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RNA has Ribose instead of Deoxyribose.

-RNA exists as a single strand not a double helix

-contains Uracil as a replacement for Thymine

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RNA and DNA similarities-

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the chemical linkage between nucleotides in RNA is the same as that in DNA

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mRNA function-

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carries the genetic information copied from DNA in the form of three-base code 'words' which is sent to the ribosome to create new proteins

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Allele-

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one or two more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome

[ex: you have an A where your uncle has a G]

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Mitosis-

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part of the cell cycle in which chromosomes in a cell nucleus are separated into 2 identical sets of chromosomes and each set ends up in its own nucleus.

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Meosis-

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the type of cell division that creates egg and sperm cells.

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Exons-

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RNA, coding region: parts of DNA that are genes

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Introns-

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parts of DNA that are NOT genes

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splicing-

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takes place after or concurrently with transcription; introns are removed and exons are joined.

This is needed for typical mRNA before it can be used to produce a correct protein through translation.

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Codon-

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the genetic code: 64 possibilities for 20 amino acids

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Mutation-

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a change in the DNA sequence

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Promoter Region-

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the region that signals the beginning of the sequence of DNA that can be used in the multiplication of a protein

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terminator-

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stops the multiplication of a protein.

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protein-

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a molecule consisting of amino acids.

Proteins are the cell's main building materials and do most of a cell's work.

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regulatory sequence-

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a series of proteins that act as an on off switch for the following gene to be used.

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Hoes RNA polymerase works-

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it makes RNA by inserting itself between the DNA strands. It unzips and exposes the bases to copy the necessary code and then zips back up.

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How the ribosome works-

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work is done in 3 sites found in every ribosome: