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100 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Hominid evolution
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-human-like animal
-includes humans and human-like beings until 5mil years ago - |
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genus Australopithecus
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-1-4 mya ago
-named after Australia, despite being from Africa |
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Homo neanderthalensis
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-a parallel evolutionary branch of the genus Homo, that lived from 300,000 years ago until 30,000 years ago
-complex culture -ritually buried with pollen and fibrous material, small animals, musical instruments |
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mind and mental states
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-Mental states - internal subjective experiences (thoughts, feelings perceptions, awareness, consciousness)
-mind is a collection of mental states |
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general features of vertebrate brains
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-forebrain, cerebrum, optic tectum (middlebrain), medulla (rearbrain)
-cerebrum covers most of the brain, with a little stem that has the medulla at the bottom |
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anatomical terms used to describe locations
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-anterior = front
-posterior = back -lateral = side -medial = middle -dorsal = up -ventral = down |
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meninges: dura mater, arachnoid layer, pia mater
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-dura mater = hard mother
-arachnoid layer = the filamentous saran wrap thing -pia mater = soft mother that is like skin ALL MADE OF COLLAGEN, TOUGH AND ELASTIC-Y, COLLECTIVELY CALLED MENINGES |
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cerebral spinal fluid
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-between the arachnoid and pia mater layers
-produced in brain, flows around in brain and spinal cord as well, entire CNS is bathed in this fluid |
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cerebral cortical lobes
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-occipital lobe = vision
-parietal lobe = somatosensory sensation -temporal = auditory, memory function -frontal lobe =reasoning and problem solving |
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cerebellum
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-sensory perception and motor output
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limbic system
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-hippocampus, amygdala
-operates by influencing the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system -controls emotions, motivations, emotional memory -includes parts of the temporal lobe |
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brain stem
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-spinal cord, pons, cerebellum, mid/hind-brain, diencephalon
-structurally joins spinal cord and brain |
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Gray/white matter
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-Gray matter = cell bodies of nerve cell and glial cells, make up the mass of the brain
-White matter = nerve fibers that connect the layers of the brain together - the ventricles |
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cerebral arteries
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anterior cerebral artery feeds the anterior part of the cortex, the middle and front arteries do the same, respectively
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cerebral cortex
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includes all the lobes - pretty much the generic brain
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GAYSAL BANGLIA
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cellular structures underneath the cortex like the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus
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diencephalon
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thalmus and hypothalmus
[brainstem] |
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midbrain
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superior and inferior colliculi (for sensory information from the outside)
[brainstem] |
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hindbrain
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pons and medulla
[brainstem] |
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cranial nerves
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There are 12 nerves that control the body in the brain. Nerves leave through the brainstem
10- vagus nerve |
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CNS
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Brain and spinal cord
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PNS
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Somatic
-muscle - movement -sensory - sense information -enteric - gastrointestinal connection |
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sympathetic NS
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-fight/flight - crisis situation
-Increased HR, BP -lung airway, vein, pupil dialation |
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parasympathetic NS
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rest/recuperationRRRR
decreased HR, BP lung, airway, vein, pupil constriction |
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neurons vs. glial cells
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1e11 neurons, 5e12 glial cells
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structure of SUCK the neuron
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dendrites, cell body (with the axon hillock), then axon, myelin, axon terminal (TEH ENDZORS)
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types of glial cells
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-EPENDYMAL: small ovoid, secretes with CSF
-ASTROCYTE: star-shaped, symmetrical, nurture and support, included in nerve growth factor -OLIGODENDRAL: assymetrical, forms myelin around axons in brain & spinal cord -MICROGLIAL: small crazy shaped, defensive functions |
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Structure and properties of water
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-polar covalent bond
-water is sticky to itself -Hydrogen bonds -good solvent |
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polarity of molecules
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electrons are shared
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hydrophobic
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does not dissolve in water, non-polar molecules
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hydrophillic
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dissolves in water, polar molecules
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bonding properties of carbon
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four electrons, bonds with 4 things
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amino acids
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-basic building block for protein
-requires an acid group and an amine group attached to the same carbon |
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peptide bonds
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covalently link together amino acids to form peptide bonds
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proteins
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amino acids covalently linked together by peptide bonds
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structure of proteins
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PRIMARY- how myoglobin all line up
SECONDARY- how they locally fold up into alpha-helices TERTIARY- how the whole thing folds into a big blob |
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elemental composition of the human body
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by weight.
oxygen 65 carbon 18.5 hyrdrogen 9.5 nitrogen calcium phosphorous potassium sulfur sodium chlorine |
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biological macromolecules
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PROTEIN - chain of amino acids that form body and also function chemically, like enzymes
CARBOHYDRATE - carbons and hydrogens and oxygens, main source of energy FAT/LIPID - carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, mostly carbon and hydrogen NUCLEIC ACIDS - storage of information |
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phospholipid bilayer
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the border of nerve cells that is impermeable by hydrophilic stuff
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dimensions of molecules and cells
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-lipid bilayer = 5nm
-medium size protein = 5nm -bacterial cells = .1um-10um -distance between nerve cells 100nm -small molecule = .5nm -nerve cell body 5-100um |
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bilayer biological membrane
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-hydrophilic outer edge
-potato-like structures -diameter is about 5nm |
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DNA/RNA
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-Composed of adenine, cytosine, thymine, guanine
-looks like DNA, with an extra copy of oxygen, single strand |
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gene
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fundamental unit of heredity
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genetic code
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relationship between DNA nucleotides and the amino acids in proteins
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translation
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making of protein
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transcription
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mRNA copying the DNA
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Historical timeline of study in genetics
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Darwin - diversity of living organisms understood by natural selection
Mendel - traits segregate and sort in an orderly fashion during reproduction. Genes underly traits; they are particulate factors that segregate and sort Niels Bohr - quantum theory of atomic structure -uncertainty principle |
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Avery and DNA
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He proved DNA was genetic material because he was able to transform other cells' properties
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Hershey-Chase blender experiment (1952)
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They put e. coli and virus phage and a radioactive isotope of sulfur (where the virus lives), saying that whatever the virus eats to replicate itself = the genetic material.
Proved DNA was primary genetic material |
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Rosalind Franklin
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Did x-ray crystallography
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Linus Pauling
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Made the toy model of the alpha-helix
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neuronal axon
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-sends action potential out to other cells
-axon is made of lipid bilayer |
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Na/K pump
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pump that keeps the ion concentration good, powered by ATP
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ATP
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-Atropine triphosphate
-main source of intracellular energy |
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Energy consumption by brain
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-Bodies require 700kcal/day, brain uses 60% of that.
-60% of that = 250kcal is used by Na/K pump |
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neuronal ion gradient
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different concentrations of ions in/out of cells
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membrane potential
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-resting = -70mV
-action potential happens after -55mV |
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voltage gated ion channels
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channels that open at a certain voltage
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action potential
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-all or nothing mechanism
-happens once the axon hillock gets enough EPSPs to "initiate" |
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refractory period
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the period after an action potential that the neuron can't fire even if it gets lots of EPSPs
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myelin
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-fatty sheaths that speed up the action potential (10k times faster if myelinated)
-speeds this up via saltatory conduction |
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nodes of Ranvier
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the breaks in the myelin where the signal hops during saltatory conduction
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disruption of action potential and neural signaling
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too much water will prevent nerve signaling
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water poisoning
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-excess of water intake, dilution of ions that are essential for the functioning of the nervous system and heart
-hyponatremia, can lead to seizure or heart attack |
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Paracelsus' quote
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everything is a poison, just depends on the dosage
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tetrodotoxin
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-potent nerve toxin that blocks voltage-gated sodium channels
-found in the puffer fish's internal organs (Fugu rubripes) -does not cross the blood-brain barrier -prevents PNS from generating normal action potential -death from respiratory paralysis |
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TTX resistance
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There are mutations of amino acids in the sodium channel
ex. the garter snakes that eat newts |
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saxitoxin
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-blocks some of the sodium channels
-hydrophilic- paralyzes people and fish (paralytic shellfish poisoning |
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local anesthetics
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-numb sensation in one spot
-makes the sodium channel malfunction so it doesn't open and close normally |
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blood-brain barrier
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-hydrophobic so lipophobic things can't go through
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retina, eye to brain circuitry, vision
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-retina extracts information from the light signal -- needs movement, otherwise it won't spike
-sends signal to brain -brain converts signal to conscious experience |
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Tobi Delbruck and the design and construction of a silicon retina
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simulates a retina. stupid.
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efficiency comparisons - brain vs. integrated circutry
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brain is 1mil times more power efficient than computers
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neuromorphic engineering
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scientific area that tries to mimic the human brain with technology
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"Moore's Law" and the future of silicon technology
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information capacity of chips doubles every 1.5-2 years.
thinks that thing will plateau in 20 years |
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disruption of action potential and nerve signaling
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toxins block the sodium channels
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batrachatoxins (BTX)
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-found in the frog (Phyllobates terribilis)
-found on poisonous skin gunk, used for spears -also found in birds in New Guinea -ACTUALLY comes from Choresine beetles -interferes with action potential by wedging itself into the voltage gated sodium channel and prevents it from closing -doesn't cross blood-brain barrier -paralyzes -VGSC protects bird and frog |
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ciguatoxins (CTX) and ciguatera
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-diarrhea, nausea, vomiting
-sleep problems, anxiety, depression, hallucinations -ocean born molecule found in dinoflagellates -LOWER THE THRESHOLD VOLTAGE FOR OPENING THE SODIUM CHANNEL (neurons are hyperexcitable) |
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ways to interfere with sodium channel
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-blocking channels closed
-interfering with channel closure -lowering the threshold for opening the channel -and other stuff BOTTOM LINE: NERVE SIGNALING DOES NOT WORK CORRECTLY WHEN VGSC PROTEINS ARE MESSED WITH |
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structure and function of synapses
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-synapse means "join together"
-they release NT |
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dendritic spines
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-knobby structures that come of dendrites, increase surface area that axons can attach to
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hyperpolarization, IPSP
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-when it goes MORE negative, neuron is less likely to fire
-Cl goes into the neuron and makes it more negative |
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depolarization, EPSP
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-when it goes LESS negative, neuron is more likely to fire
-sodium or calcium goes into the cell to make it less negative |
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integration of multiple inputs by neurons
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summation of all the IPSPs and EPSPs
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ionotropic receptor, ligand gated ion channel
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-two names for the same thing
-ligands are smaller molecules that bind to larger molecules -NT sticks to a binding site, the channel opens, ions flow. |
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metabotropic receptor, G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR)
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-two names for the same thing
-changes the cellular chemistry (metabolism) -G-protein binds to a NT activated receptor protein, then |
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Otto Loewi and the discovery of the NT concept
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So, there's a frog heart in saline solution (still beating). Lowei stimulated (sent a charge) into the vagus nerve of the heart (which is parasympathetic) and the heart slows down. Then, he takes the saline and puts it into another jar with a beating frog heart, and that heart slows down. Thus, there must be some aqueously transmitted thing that tells the heart to slow down; neurotransmitter.
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acetylcholine
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-discovered by Otto Loewi
-parasympathetic NT |
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GPCRs and amplification
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-NT binds to proteins, which then bind to GPCRs, which then activates other stuff
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criteria for establishing NT action
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-must be present (usually synthesized) in neuron
-must transmit a message to the next cell after it is released -same response is produced when just the chemical is placed on a target cell -must be a way of removing this substance |
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methods of removing NT from synaptic cleft
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-reuptake into axon terminal
-uptake into nearby glial cells -enzymatic degradation -diffusion out of the synaptic cleft |
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acetylcholine (synthesis and degredation)
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-made up of acetate and choline
-connected by choline acetyltransferase -killed by acetylholinesterase (AChE) |
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acetylcholine circutry in the nervous system
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-can't cross the BBB, so if it is used in brain or spinal cord it is made there
-used in the brain, autonomic nervous system (parasympathetic) and the neuromuscular junction |
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glutamate and CNS excitation
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-most abundant NT in the body
-excitatory -acts at the ionotropic glutamate receptor (there are many different kinds, but they all respond to glutamate) -when glutamate binds, calcium flows, causing depolarization, an EPSP |
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GABA and CNS inhibition
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-Gamma Amino Butyric Acid
-made from glutamate -second most abundant NT, after glutamate -glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) takes off the carboxyl group from glutamate -main receptor - GABA-A -when GABA binds to GABA-A receptor, channel opens and CL- enters the cell, hyperpolarizing the cell and creating IPSP |
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serotonin
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-5-hydroxytryptamine
-made from tryptophan => decarboxylated, hydroxylase -our bodies can't make tryptophan, we have to eat it |
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dopamine
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-made from phenylalanine => tyrosine => DOPA => dopamine
-hydrophilic |
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norepinephrine/noradrenaline
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-A neurotransmitter made from dopamine by adding an OH
-secreted by adrenal gland -parasympathetic NS activation |
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epinephrine/adrenaline
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-Made from dopamine, remove a hydrogen from the amine group, add a methyl group to it (instead)
-secreted by adrenal gland -sympathetic NS activation |
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monoamine oxidase
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they break down neurotransmitters inside cells, whereas AChE breaks them down outside cells
breaks down serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine because they all have amines |
