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185 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
The levels of organization in the vertebrate body are cells -> ___ -> Organ systems.
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Tissues, organs
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This is a group of cells with a similar structure and function.
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Tissues.
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The FOUR primary tissues in adult vertebrates are:
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Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve.
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Name any organ of the digestive system.
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Stomach, small intestine, large intestine, etc.
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___ is the name for any tissue that covers all external and internal surfaces of the body.
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Epithelial
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Describe the specialized function of Epithelium in vertebrate skin.
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Protection from dehydration.
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Describe the specialized function of Epithelium in the digestive tract.
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Selective entry of digestive products and barrier to toxins.
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Describe the specialized function of Epithelium in lungs.
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Rapid diffusion of gases in and out of blood.
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What is the characteristic arrangement of cells in all types of epithelia?
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Very tightly packed.
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What is the replacement rate for the stomach epithelium?
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Every three days.
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Differentiate simple epithelium from stratified epithelium.
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Thin; one layered (squamous) = simple. Stratified = layered
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Give one location and function for columnar epithelium.
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Intestines.
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Give one location and function for cubodial epithelium.
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Glands.
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Give one location for squamous epithelium.
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Lungs.
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Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.
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Exo = ducts. Endo = No ducts.
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Give a place on the body where you would ind stratified epithelium.
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Skin.
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Even though it has great diversity, all connective tissue is similar in its construction; widely spaced ___ surrounded by a ___ of ground substance.
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Cells, matrix.
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In a comparison of connective tissue to a fruit jello salad, the fruit would compare to the ___ and the jello would be the ___
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Cells, matrix.
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___ Connective tissue contains a large amount of ground substance surrounding various cells and fibers.
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Loose.
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In older adults, the skin begins to "sag" because the ___ fibers have lost their special quality.
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Elastin.
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___ tissue is a type of loose connective with the ability to store triglycerides.
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Adipose
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T OR F: When a person loses weight, the adipose cells no longer undergo mitosis.
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False; the cells simply lose their fat ontent.
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Dense connective tissue has less ___ and is therefore stronger.
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Ground substance.
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___ binds muscle to bone.
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Tendons
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____ binds bone to bone.
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Ligaments
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What is the connective tissue usually described as firm but rubbery?
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Cartilage
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Collagen fibers and chondroitin are the components of ___
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Cartilage
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Give TWO locations (one visible, one hidden) where cartilage can be found in the body.
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Ears, joints.
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The hardened connective tissue is ____ where the cells become isolated within the ground substance.
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Bone
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How do the osteocytes receive their nourishment through the hardened bone?
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Central canals
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What is the developmental relationship between cartilage and bone?
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Cartilage precedes bone in development; ; bone comes from cartilage.
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___ is liquid connective tissue with abundant floating cells.
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Blood
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This muscle type is found in viscera; spindle-shaped cells.
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Smooth
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This muscle type have cells called fibers and have multiple nuclei.
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Skeletal
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This muscle type is found only in the heart.
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Cardiac.
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___ tissue is equipped to generate and transmit impulse signals for communication.
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Nerve
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This is also known as dynamic equilibrium.
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Homeostasis.
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____ Feedback moves the conditions back to the set point.
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Negative.
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How does a room thermostat resemble the homeostasis you experience in body temperature?
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Too cold, thermostat heats. Too warm, thermostat cools.
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Provide a human body example of positive feedback.
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Birth; pelvis pushes against uterus and pushes open to cause contractions.
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Differentiate between endotherm and ectotherms.
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Endo = warm blooded. Ecto = cold blooded.
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A moose is an ____therm with a changeable interna; temperature.
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Endotherm
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A lizard is a ___therm that can regulate its internal temperature by what means?
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Ectotherm; behavior.
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Thermogenesis by ___ involves the involuntary contracting of muscles to produce heat.
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Shivering.
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What part of the brain regulates temperature
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Hypothalamus
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Substances called pyrogens can produce a ______
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Fever
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What is the value of a fever?
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Increases body temperature to promote bacterial death; encourage a fever to a point
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What system in the vertebrate body is used for rapid response and communication?
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Nervous system
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This type of neuron carries impulses from CNS to muscle.
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Motor
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These neurons are afferent neurons, also called
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Sensory neurons
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These neurons carry impulses from receptors to CNS
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Sensory
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These neurons receive input from sensory and passes to motor
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Interneurons
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These neurons are entirely within the CNS
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Interneurons
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The TWO major parts of the CNS are ___ and ___
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Brain and Spinal Cord
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All parts of the nervous system outside the CNS are considered to be part of the ___ nervous system
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Peripheral
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The portion of the PNS that is voluntary and controls skeletal muscles is called
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Somatic
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The portion of the PNS that is involuntary and controls smooth muscles and glands is ____
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Autonomic
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What is the major difference in the "duties" of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
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They trigger opposing reactions. Sympathetic is "sympathetic" to your feelings, rousing heart rate, etc. Parasympathetic brings things back to normal.
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The main part of the neuron cell is the ____ that houses the nucleus and organelles.
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Cell body
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____ are usually shorter, usually more numerous extensions of the cell body plasma membrane and always conduct impulses ___ the cell body
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Dendrites, toward
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An ___ is usually single, rather long, and always conducts impulses ____ ____ the cell body.
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Axon, away
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Cells that support but do not generate impulses are called
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Neuroglia
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Give some examples of the types of "jobs" that neuroglia perform.
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Supply neurons with nutrients, remove waste from neurons, guide axon migration, provide immune functions
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Which extensions of the neuron cell body are covered with a sheath?
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Axon
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In the PNS, the myelin sheath is generated by the ___ cells and wrapped around the axon.
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Schwann
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In the CNS, the same function as above is performed by the _____
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Oligodendrocytes
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The myelin sheath is an ___overing consisting of multiple layers impregnated with lipid.
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Axon
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Non-myelinated axons are ____ matter while myelinated axonos are ____ matter.
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Grey; white
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In the PNS, myelinated axons are bundled together in cable-like forms called ____
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Nerves
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Small gaps in the myelinated sheath are called the ___ of the ___
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Nodes of Ranvier
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The charge (potential) difference across the plasma membrane of a neuron can be compared to what common device?
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Battery
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The inside of the neuronal membrane is ___ while the outside is ___
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Negative; positive
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When the neuron is NOT being stimulated, there is a ____ potential of about -70mV.
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Resting
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Even though the difference across the membrane is expressed as a + and -, the overall positive charge outside the neuron is due to the excess of ___ and ___ ions that accumulate there.
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Sodium; potassium.
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The sodium-potassium pump is powered by the energy molecule called ___ and puts ___ Na+ out for every ____ K+ in.
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ATP, 3, 2,
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However, as the K+ ions accumulate inside they diffuse through the ___ to the outside
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Ion channel
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What is the advantage of a gated channel?
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It can open or close to regulate ion entry.
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When a neurotransmitter such as Acetylocholine binds to a protein gate in the neuron membrane, what is the result?
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It opens and allows Na+ to rush in
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When a stimulus, say a loud noise, reaches a predetermined threshold level, an ___ potential can be generated.
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Threshold
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In contrast to the gated ion channel that was opened by a chemical Acetylocholine, an action potential is generated by a ____-gated ion channel.
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Voltage
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In step #1, the ____ gate is closed to keep the concentration of Na+ outside high and maintain the resting potential.
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Sodium
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In step 2, a ___ stimulus has been reached, causing the Na+ gates to open, which generates the action potential, also called an impulse.
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Threshold
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In step 3, the action potential ceases because the Na+ gate ___
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closes
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Like the action of a light switch, action potentials are ___ ___ ___ events
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All or nothing
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T OR F: The production of an action potential is an active event requiring the use of ATP
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False
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The movement of an action potential along an axon could be compared to the lighting of a ___ on a firecracker.
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Fuse
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Figure out what polarized, depolarized, and repolarized axons look like.
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Okay.
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There are TWO ways to increase the velocity of nerve impulses: Increase the ___ of the axon so there is less resistance to current flow; or ____ the axon with a sheath
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Diameter; cover
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In a myelinated axon, the impulses seem to ___ from one ___ of Ranvier to the next because the gates are only opening at those spots
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Jump; node
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The speed in node-to-node transmission is gained because the ___ under the myelin sheath do not have to spend time opening and closing.
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Gates
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When an impulse reaches the terminal branches of an axon, where does it go next?
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Either neuron, gland, or muscle
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The tiny space between the axon ending of one neuron and the dendrite of another is called the ___
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Synapse
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The neuron transmitting is termed ____ and the neuron receiving is ____
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Presynaptic; postsynaptic
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The actual communication between pre and post synaptic cells will be by means of a ___
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Chemical
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The transmission chemicals (called ___) are located inside the end of the presynaptic neuron in ____ vesicles.
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Neurotransmitters; synaptic
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The release of the neurotransmitters is caused by the influx of ___ ions
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Calcium
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The neurotransmitter in neuromuscular junctions is ____, abbreviated ACh.
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Acetylocholine
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What effect does ACh have on post synaptic membrane?
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ACh is the bridge, binds to protein receptors and opens the channel.
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To stop the transmission of an impulse from the axon to the muscle, the Acetylocholine must be removed from the cleft by what means?
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AChe eliminates the ACh temporary bridge
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The increase in brain size in mammals is due to the expansion of the ___ portion
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Cerebral
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List the THREE major tasks of the cerebrum
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Correlation, association, and learning
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Most of the neural activity of the cerebrum occurs within the thin layer of surface cells called the ____ ___
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Cerebral cortex
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What are general duties of the primary motor cortex and somatosensory cortex?
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Movement; receiving sensations
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About 95% of the cerebral cortex is responsible for the interpretation of data; this is called the ___ cortex
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Association
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When sensory impulses arrive in the brain from the spinal cord, they are directed to the proper lobe by the ___ for processing.
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Thalamus
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We have already met the ____ as the controller of body temperature but it also is involved in hormone secretion and basic drives.
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Hypothalamus
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The four basic drives, in order from most needed to least needed are:
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1. Sleep 2. Water 3. Food 4. Sex
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The ___ ___ is really a large cable of neuron extensions downward from the brain.
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Spinal cord
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The spinal cord is covered with membranes called ____ and enclosed in a series of protective bones called the ___ column.
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Meninges; vertebratae
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In spinal cord cross-section, the inner butterfly-shaped area is ____ matter composed of the cell bodies of ___ neuron and ___ neurons.
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Gray; motor; interneurons.
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The white matter of the spinal cord consists of the ___ of sensory and motor axons.
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Axons.
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In addition to conducting impulses to and from the brain, the spinal cord is a ____ center.
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Reflex
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What is the reflex arc resulting from a hammer tap to the knee.
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Stimulus > stretch receptor > sensory dendrite > sensory cell body > sensory axon > motor dendrites > motor cell body > motor axon > receptor
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The sensory neurons enter the ___ root of the spinal cord, the motor neurons exit via the ___ root.
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Dorsal; ventral.
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What is different about the spinal cord locations of the cell bodies of the sensory and motor neurons.
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Sensory = outside. Motor = inside.
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The ___ motor neurons stimulate the skeletal muscles and are under ____ control.
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somatic; voluntary
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What are the TWO divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
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Sympathetic; parasympathetic.
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With respect to the heartbeat, the ___ division speeds it up and the ___ slows it down.
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Sympathetic, parasympathetic.
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**Note** Sympathetic nervous system can slow the appetite during depression
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Okay.
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What is the role of sensory cells/receptors?
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Receive stimuli
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Once the sensory information is received and transmitted, where will it be interpreted?
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Brain
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___respond to pain stimuli.
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Nocio receptors
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Temperature changes are detected by ____
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Thermo receptors
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Touch would stimulate ___ receptors
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Mechano
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Reporting information about the positioning of body parts would be the job of ____
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Proprio
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The tympanic membrane, small bones, andorgans of Corgi all participate in the sense of ___
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Hearing
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Hair cells in the semicircular canals of the inner ear help to maintain the body's ____
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Balance
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Chemicals in food and drink are detected by ___ ___ on the tongue
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Taste buds
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The nasal passages bear chemoreceptors for the sense of ___ or olfaction
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Smell
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Receptors for vision are located in the fear of the eye in a lining called the ___
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Retina
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___ Cells detect black and white and work in dim light; ____ cells need bright light and can detect ___ in the environment
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Rod; cone; color
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Primates can judge distance and 3-D because of ___ vision.
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Binocular
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This is a regulatory chemical secreted by a gland into a fluid, then into blood and carried to various body parts to do a job.
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Hormone
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T OR F: Endocrine glands have ducts leading from the glands to the receipt tissue.
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True
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What is the similarity between the target cell of the hormone and a cell phone?
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Cell phones need both a transmitter (callers) and a working receiver.
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Some neurons can also secrete hormones; called, appropriately
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Neurohormones
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What are the two classes of hormones?
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Hydrophilic, lipophilic
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Which two groups from the question above are hydrophilic? Which is lipophilic?
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Peptides, proteins, and amino acids; steriods.
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To be transported in the blood, lipophilic hotmones must be bound to a transport
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Protein
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After dissociating from its protein carrier, a steroid hormone [can/cannot] directly through the ____ bilayer.
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Phospholipid
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Once inside the cell, the steroid hormone binds to a ___ then it enters the nucleus where the complex affects DNA > mRNA, a process you recall as ____
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Receptor; transcription
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T OR F: Hydrophilic hormones (eg. proteins) will not enter the cell.
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True
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When a protein hormone (insulin) attaches to a receptor in the plasma membrane , the intracellular response will be via enzymes called ___ using the energy molecule ___
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Kinases; ATP
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The ___ gland hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus at the base of the ____
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Pituitary; brain
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What are the two portions of the pituitary gland called?
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Posterior and anterior
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The posterior pituitary is NOT really glandular but receives hormones actually made in the ___ and delivered via axons.
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Hypothalamus
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What TWO hormones are stored and released from the posterior pituitary?
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Antidiuretic hormone; oxytocin
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ADH is short for ___ ___ which acts, on the kidneys to reabsorb [less/more] water back into the blood.
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Antidiuretic hormone; more
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What TWO functions of oxytocin that are definitely related to females?
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Stimulates uterine contractions, stimulates milk ejection.
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What is the function of oxytocin in both sexes?
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The "Cuddle hormone"; regulates sexual responses
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T OR F: Although it is attached to the posterior pituitary and is cvery close to the brain, the anterior pituitary is not part of the nervous system.
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True
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What is TOTAL number of hormones produced in the anterior pituitary?
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7
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What would be the basis for calling the pituitary the "master gland"?
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Because it controls so many hormones
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Several of the "pituitary seven" are called tropic hormones; what does this mean?
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To stimulate
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In females, this hormone stimulates ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone; causes ovulation.
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Lutenizing hormone
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This hormone stimulates mammaries to produce milk
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Prolactin
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This hormone stimulates adrenal cortex to produce cortisol
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Adrenocorticotropic
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This hormone, in males, stimulates sperm development; in females, ovarian follicles
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Follicle-stimulating
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This hormone has general effect on body tissues to affect growth process
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Growth Hormone
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This hormone stimulates melanin production
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Melanocyte stimulating
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This hormone stimulates thyroid gland
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Thyroid stimulating hormone
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Excess growth hormone causes ___; too little causes ____
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Giantism; pituitary dwarfism.
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It is easy to remember the shape of the thyroid gland because it resembles a ____
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Bowtie
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Thyroxine and triiodothyronine contain what unusual element?
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Iodine
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Both thyroid hormones control the body's basal __ ___ by regulating the enzymes involved in carbs and lipid utilization.
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Metabolic rate
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The thyroid also secretes ___ that causes ___ uptake from the blood and deposition in the bones.
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Calcitonin; calcium
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They are easy to miss, but the thyroid has four tiny ____ glands
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Parathyroid
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The action of parathyroid hormone is the opposite of calcitonin. In your own words, how does this work?
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Breaks down bone to regulate calcium; takes calcium out of the bones.
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Calcium is needed for ____ to help impulse transmission.
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Ca+ charges to release acetylcholine
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In its job, PTH acts on what bone cells?
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Ostioclasts
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T OR F: Vitamin D comes from sunlight
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False. Vitamin D is a cholesterol derivative that is influenced by UV light that stimulates its conversion from cholesterol to a vitamin.
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Vitamin D is a derivative of what "bad" lipid?
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Cholesterol
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T OR F: Vitamin D is an inactive hormone
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True
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Where are the adrenals located?
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Above each kidney
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Because the adrenal medulla has close connections to the sympathetic nervous system, you would expect it to be involved in what kind of body responses?
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Fight or flight
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What TWO hormones are secreted from the adrenal medulla?
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Epinephrine (adrenaline)/Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
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Hormones from the adrenal in general deal with stress: Those from the ___ portion deal with short term; those from the ___ deal with long-term.
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Medulla; cortex
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What is the general name for homrones from the adrenal cortex?
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Corticosteroids
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Cortisol has great effects on the metabolism of ___ but it also affects the immune system and has anti-____ actions
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Glucose/carbs; immunity
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____ is a steroid that regulates mineral balance
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Mineralcorticoids
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Insulin is secreted by the ___ cells of the pancreas and has what effect on glucose levels in the blood?
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Beta; lowers blood glucose level
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Insulin causes glucose to be used by cells and the excess to be stored in the ___
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Liver
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What hormone is released from the alpha cells of the pancreas when blood glucose levels fall as happens between meals?
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Glucogon
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What is the difference in treatment for diabetes, type I and II?
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Type I: No insulin produced at all, injections of insulin. Type II: Reduced insulin sensitivity, changes in diet.
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Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic, what does that mean?
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Insulin lowers blood sugar, glucagon raises it.
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