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185 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
The levels of organization in the vertebrate body are cells -> ___ -> Organ systems.
Tissues, organs
This is a group of cells with a similar structure and function.
Tissues.
The FOUR primary tissues in adult vertebrates are:
Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve.
Name any organ of the digestive system.
Stomach, small intestine, large intestine, etc.
___ is the name for any tissue that covers all external and internal surfaces of the body.
Epithelial
Describe the specialized function of Epithelium in vertebrate skin.
Protection from dehydration.
Describe the specialized function of Epithelium in the digestive tract.
Selective entry of digestive products and barrier to toxins.
Describe the specialized function of Epithelium in lungs.
Rapid diffusion of gases in and out of blood.
What is the characteristic arrangement of cells in all types of epithelia?
Very tightly packed.
What is the replacement rate for the stomach epithelium?
Every three days.
Differentiate simple epithelium from stratified epithelium.
Thin; one layered (squamous) = simple. Stratified = layered
Give one location and function for columnar epithelium.
Intestines.
Give one location and function for cubodial epithelium.
Glands.
Give one location for squamous epithelium.
Lungs.
Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.
Exo = ducts. Endo = No ducts.
Give a place on the body where you would ind stratified epithelium.
Skin.
Even though it has great diversity, all connective tissue is similar in its construction; widely spaced ___ surrounded by a ___ of ground substance.
Cells, matrix.
In a comparison of connective tissue to a fruit jello salad, the fruit would compare to the ___ and the jello would be the ___
Cells, matrix.
___ Connective tissue contains a large amount of ground substance surrounding various cells and fibers.
Loose.
In older adults, the skin begins to "sag" because the ___ fibers have lost their special quality.
Elastin.
___ tissue is a type of loose connective with the ability to store triglycerides.
Adipose
T OR F: When a person loses weight, the adipose cells no longer undergo mitosis.
False; the cells simply lose their fat ontent.
Dense connective tissue has less ___ and is therefore stronger.
Ground substance.
___ binds muscle to bone.
Tendons
____ binds bone to bone.
Ligaments
What is the connective tissue usually described as firm but rubbery?
Cartilage
Collagen fibers and chondroitin are the components of ___
Cartilage
Give TWO locations (one visible, one hidden) where cartilage can be found in the body.
Ears, joints.
The hardened connective tissue is ____ where the cells become isolated within the ground substance.
Bone
How do the osteocytes receive their nourishment through the hardened bone?
Central canals
What is the developmental relationship between cartilage and bone?
Cartilage precedes bone in development; ; bone comes from cartilage.
___ is liquid connective tissue with abundant floating cells.
Blood
This muscle type is found in viscera; spindle-shaped cells.
Smooth
This muscle type have cells called fibers and have multiple nuclei.
Skeletal
This muscle type is found only in the heart.
Cardiac.
___ tissue is equipped to generate and transmit impulse signals for communication.
Nerve
This is also known as dynamic equilibrium.
Homeostasis.
____ Feedback moves the conditions back to the set point.
Negative.
How does a room thermostat resemble the homeostasis you experience in body temperature?
Too cold, thermostat heats. Too warm, thermostat cools.
Provide a human body example of positive feedback.
Birth; pelvis pushes against uterus and pushes open to cause contractions.
Differentiate between endotherm and ectotherms.
Endo = warm blooded. Ecto = cold blooded.
A moose is an ____therm with a changeable interna; temperature.
Endotherm
A lizard is a ___therm that can regulate its internal temperature by what means?
Ectotherm; behavior.
Thermogenesis by ___ involves the involuntary contracting of muscles to produce heat.
Shivering.
What part of the brain regulates temperature
Hypothalamus
Substances called pyrogens can produce a ______
Fever
What is the value of a fever?
Increases body temperature to promote bacterial death; encourage a fever to a point
What system in the vertebrate body is used for rapid response and communication?
Nervous system
This type of neuron carries impulses from CNS to muscle.
Motor
These neurons are afferent neurons, also called
Sensory neurons
These neurons carry impulses from receptors to CNS
Sensory
These neurons receive input from sensory and passes to motor
Interneurons
These neurons are entirely within the CNS
Interneurons
The TWO major parts of the CNS are ___ and ___
Brain and Spinal Cord
All parts of the nervous system outside the CNS are considered to be part of the ___ nervous system
Peripheral
The portion of the PNS that is voluntary and controls skeletal muscles is called
Somatic
The portion of the PNS that is involuntary and controls smooth muscles and glands is ____
Autonomic
What is the major difference in the "duties" of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
They trigger opposing reactions. Sympathetic is "sympathetic" to your feelings, rousing heart rate, etc. Parasympathetic brings things back to normal.
The main part of the neuron cell is the ____ that houses the nucleus and organelles.
Cell body
____ are usually shorter, usually more numerous extensions of the cell body plasma membrane and always conduct impulses ___ the cell body
Dendrites, toward
An ___ is usually single, rather long, and always conducts impulses ____ ____ the cell body.
Axon, away
Cells that support but do not generate impulses are called
Neuroglia
Give some examples of the types of "jobs" that neuroglia perform.
Supply neurons with nutrients, remove waste from neurons, guide axon migration, provide immune functions
Which extensions of the neuron cell body are covered with a sheath?
Axon
In the PNS, the myelin sheath is generated by the ___ cells and wrapped around the axon.
Schwann
In the CNS, the same function as above is performed by the _____
Oligodendrocytes
The myelin sheath is an ___overing consisting of multiple layers impregnated with lipid.
Axon
Non-myelinated axons are ____ matter while myelinated axonos are ____ matter.
Grey; white
In the PNS, myelinated axons are bundled together in cable-like forms called ____
Nerves
Small gaps in the myelinated sheath are called the ___ of the ___
Nodes of Ranvier
The charge (potential) difference across the plasma membrane of a neuron can be compared to what common device?
Battery
The inside of the neuronal membrane is ___ while the outside is ___
Negative; positive
When the neuron is NOT being stimulated, there is a ____ potential of about -70mV.
Resting
Even though the difference across the membrane is expressed as a + and -, the overall positive charge outside the neuron is due to the excess of ___ and ___ ions that accumulate there.
Sodium; potassium.
The sodium-potassium pump is powered by the energy molecule called ___ and puts ___ Na+ out for every ____ K+ in.
ATP, 3, 2,
However, as the K+ ions accumulate inside they diffuse through the ___ to the outside
Ion channel
What is the advantage of a gated channel?
It can open or close to regulate ion entry.
When a neurotransmitter such as Acetylocholine binds to a protein gate in the neuron membrane, what is the result?
It opens and allows Na+ to rush in
When a stimulus, say a loud noise, reaches a predetermined threshold level, an ___ potential can be generated.
Threshold
In contrast to the gated ion channel that was opened by a chemical Acetylocholine, an action potential is generated by a ____-gated ion channel.
Voltage
In step #1, the ____ gate is closed to keep the concentration of Na+ outside high and maintain the resting potential.
Sodium
In step 2, a ___ stimulus has been reached, causing the Na+ gates to open, which generates the action potential, also called an impulse.
Threshold
In step 3, the action potential ceases because the Na+ gate ___
closes
Like the action of a light switch, action potentials are ___ ___ ___ events
All or nothing
T OR F: The production of an action potential is an active event requiring the use of ATP
False
The movement of an action potential along an axon could be compared to the lighting of a ___ on a firecracker.
Fuse
Figure out what polarized, depolarized, and repolarized axons look like.
Okay.
There are TWO ways to increase the velocity of nerve impulses: Increase the ___ of the axon so there is less resistance to current flow; or ____ the axon with a sheath
Diameter; cover
In a myelinated axon, the impulses seem to ___ from one ___ of Ranvier to the next because the gates are only opening at those spots
Jump; node
The speed in node-to-node transmission is gained because the ___ under the myelin sheath do not have to spend time opening and closing.
Gates
When an impulse reaches the terminal branches of an axon, where does it go next?
Either neuron, gland, or muscle
The tiny space between the axon ending of one neuron and the dendrite of another is called the ___
Synapse
The neuron transmitting is termed ____ and the neuron receiving is ____
Presynaptic; postsynaptic
The actual communication between pre and post synaptic cells will be by means of a ___
Chemical
The transmission chemicals (called ___) are located inside the end of the presynaptic neuron in ____ vesicles.
Neurotransmitters; synaptic
The release of the neurotransmitters is caused by the influx of ___ ions
Calcium
The neurotransmitter in neuromuscular junctions is ____, abbreviated ACh.
Acetylocholine
What effect does ACh have on post synaptic membrane?
ACh is the bridge, binds to protein receptors and opens the channel.
To stop the transmission of an impulse from the axon to the muscle, the Acetylocholine must be removed from the cleft by what means?
AChe eliminates the ACh temporary bridge
The increase in brain size in mammals is due to the expansion of the ___ portion
Cerebral
List the THREE major tasks of the cerebrum
Correlation, association, and learning
Most of the neural activity of the cerebrum occurs within the thin layer of surface cells called the ____ ___
Cerebral cortex
What are general duties of the primary motor cortex and somatosensory cortex?
Movement; receiving sensations
About 95% of the cerebral cortex is responsible for the interpretation of data; this is called the ___ cortex
Association
When sensory impulses arrive in the brain from the spinal cord, they are directed to the proper lobe by the ___ for processing.
Thalamus
We have already met the ____ as the controller of body temperature but it also is involved in hormone secretion and basic drives.
Hypothalamus
The four basic drives, in order from most needed to least needed are:
1. Sleep 2. Water 3. Food 4. Sex
The ___ ___ is really a large cable of neuron extensions downward from the brain.
Spinal cord
The spinal cord is covered with membranes called ____ and enclosed in a series of protective bones called the ___ column.
Meninges; vertebratae
In spinal cord cross-section, the inner butterfly-shaped area is ____ matter composed of the cell bodies of ___ neuron and ___ neurons.
Gray; motor; interneurons.
The white matter of the spinal cord consists of the ___ of sensory and motor axons.
Axons.
In addition to conducting impulses to and from the brain, the spinal cord is a ____ center.
Reflex
What is the reflex arc resulting from a hammer tap to the knee.
Stimulus > stretch receptor > sensory dendrite > sensory cell body > sensory axon > motor dendrites > motor cell body > motor axon > receptor
The sensory neurons enter the ___ root of the spinal cord, the motor neurons exit via the ___ root.
Dorsal; ventral.
What is different about the spinal cord locations of the cell bodies of the sensory and motor neurons.
Sensory = outside. Motor = inside.
The ___ motor neurons stimulate the skeletal muscles and are under ____ control.
somatic; voluntary
What are the TWO divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic; parasympathetic.
With respect to the heartbeat, the ___ division speeds it up and the ___ slows it down.
Sympathetic, parasympathetic.
**Note** Sympathetic nervous system can slow the appetite during depression
Okay.
What is the role of sensory cells/receptors?
Receive stimuli
Once the sensory information is received and transmitted, where will it be interpreted?
Brain
___respond to pain stimuli.
Nocio receptors
Temperature changes are detected by ____
Thermo receptors
Touch would stimulate ___ receptors
Mechano
Reporting information about the positioning of body parts would be the job of ____
Proprio
The tympanic membrane, small bones, andorgans of Corgi all participate in the sense of ___
Hearing
Hair cells in the semicircular canals of the inner ear help to maintain the body's ____
Balance
Chemicals in food and drink are detected by ___ ___ on the tongue
Taste buds
The nasal passages bear chemoreceptors for the sense of ___ or olfaction
Smell
Receptors for vision are located in the fear of the eye in a lining called the ___
Retina
___ Cells detect black and white and work in dim light; ____ cells need bright light and can detect ___ in the environment
Rod; cone; color
Primates can judge distance and 3-D because of ___ vision.
Binocular
This is a regulatory chemical secreted by a gland into a fluid, then into blood and carried to various body parts to do a job.
Hormone
T OR F: Endocrine glands have ducts leading from the glands to the receipt tissue.
True
What is the similarity between the target cell of the hormone and a cell phone?
Cell phones need both a transmitter (callers) and a working receiver.
Some neurons can also secrete hormones; called, appropriately
Neurohormones
What are the two classes of hormones?
Hydrophilic, lipophilic
Which two groups from the question above are hydrophilic? Which is lipophilic?
Peptides, proteins, and amino acids; steriods.
To be transported in the blood, lipophilic hotmones must be bound to a transport
Protein
After dissociating from its protein carrier, a steroid hormone [can/cannot] directly through the ____ bilayer.
Phospholipid
Once inside the cell, the steroid hormone binds to a ___ then it enters the nucleus where the complex affects DNA > mRNA, a process you recall as ____
Receptor; transcription
T OR F: Hydrophilic hormones (eg. proteins) will not enter the cell.
True
When a protein hormone (insulin) attaches to a receptor in the plasma membrane , the intracellular response will be via enzymes called ___ using the energy molecule ___
Kinases; ATP
The ___ gland hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus at the base of the ____
Pituitary; brain
What are the two portions of the pituitary gland called?
Posterior and anterior
The posterior pituitary is NOT really glandular but receives hormones actually made in the ___ and delivered via axons.
Hypothalamus
What TWO hormones are stored and released from the posterior pituitary?
Antidiuretic hormone; oxytocin
ADH is short for ___ ___ which acts, on the kidneys to reabsorb [less/more] water back into the blood.
Antidiuretic hormone; more
What TWO functions of oxytocin that are definitely related to females?
Stimulates uterine contractions, stimulates milk ejection.
What is the function of oxytocin in both sexes?
The "Cuddle hormone"; regulates sexual responses
T OR F: Although it is attached to the posterior pituitary and is cvery close to the brain, the anterior pituitary is not part of the nervous system.
True
What is TOTAL number of hormones produced in the anterior pituitary?
7
What would be the basis for calling the pituitary the "master gland"?
Because it controls so many hormones
Several of the "pituitary seven" are called tropic hormones; what does this mean?
To stimulate
In females, this hormone stimulates ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone; causes ovulation.
Lutenizing hormone
This hormone stimulates mammaries to produce milk
Prolactin
This hormone stimulates adrenal cortex to produce cortisol
Adrenocorticotropic
This hormone, in males, stimulates sperm development; in females, ovarian follicles
Follicle-stimulating
This hormone has general effect on body tissues to affect growth process
Growth Hormone
This hormone stimulates melanin production
Melanocyte stimulating
This hormone stimulates thyroid gland
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Excess growth hormone causes ___; too little causes ____
Giantism; pituitary dwarfism.
It is easy to remember the shape of the thyroid gland because it resembles a ____
Bowtie
Thyroxine and triiodothyronine contain what unusual element?
Iodine
Both thyroid hormones control the body's basal __ ___ by regulating the enzymes involved in carbs and lipid utilization.
Metabolic rate
The thyroid also secretes ___ that causes ___ uptake from the blood and deposition in the bones.
Calcitonin; calcium
They are easy to miss, but the thyroid has four tiny ____ glands
Parathyroid
The action of parathyroid hormone is the opposite of calcitonin. In your own words, how does this work?
Breaks down bone to regulate calcium; takes calcium out of the bones.
Calcium is needed for ____ to help impulse transmission.
Ca+ charges to release acetylcholine
In its job, PTH acts on what bone cells?
Ostioclasts
T OR F: Vitamin D comes from sunlight
False. Vitamin D is a cholesterol derivative that is influenced by UV light that stimulates its conversion from cholesterol to a vitamin.
Vitamin D is a derivative of what "bad" lipid?
Cholesterol
T OR F: Vitamin D is an inactive hormone
True
Where are the adrenals located?
Above each kidney
Because the adrenal medulla has close connections to the sympathetic nervous system, you would expect it to be involved in what kind of body responses?
Fight or flight
What TWO hormones are secreted from the adrenal medulla?
Epinephrine (adrenaline)/Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Hormones from the adrenal in general deal with stress: Those from the ___ portion deal with short term; those from the ___ deal with long-term.
Medulla; cortex
What is the general name for homrones from the adrenal cortex?
Corticosteroids
Cortisol has great effects on the metabolism of ___ but it also affects the immune system and has anti-____ actions
Glucose/carbs; immunity
____ is a steroid that regulates mineral balance
Mineralcorticoids
Insulin is secreted by the ___ cells of the pancreas and has what effect on glucose levels in the blood?
Beta; lowers blood glucose level
Insulin causes glucose to be used by cells and the excess to be stored in the ___
Liver
What hormone is released from the alpha cells of the pancreas when blood glucose levels fall as happens between meals?
Glucogon
What is the difference in treatment for diabetes, type I and II?
Type I: No insulin produced at all, injections of insulin. Type II: Reduced insulin sensitivity, changes in diet.
Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic, what does that mean?
Insulin lowers blood sugar, glucagon raises it.