Bisc 101 Final Exam Prep

Front 1

Glycolysis

Back 1

Harvests chemical energy by converting 1 glucose molecule to 2 pyruvate molecules

1 Glucose --> 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O

Front 2

Citric Acid Cycle (CAC)

Back 2

Acetyl CoA is oxidised to CO2

Front 3

Pyruvate Oxidation

Back 3

Pyruvate is oxidised to Acetyl CoA in mitochondria

Front 4

Chemiosmosis

Back 4

Conversion of electrons by ETC for synthesis of ATP

Front 5

Energy Investment Phase

Back 5

Stage of Glycolysis where 2 ATP are "invested" to split glucose

2 ATP --> 2 P + 2 ADP

Front 6

Energy Payoff Phase

Back 6

Stage of Glycolysis where 4 ATP are formed by substrate level phosporylation

AND

2 NADH formed by glucose oxidation

Front 7

Net yield from Glycolysis

Back 7

2 ATP + 2 NADH

Front 8

Cellular Respiration

Back 8

Process where fuel is broken down to form ATP through Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, The Citric Acid Cycle & Chemiosmosis

Max ATP production per glucose = 30 - 32 ATP (34% efficient)

Front 9

Does Glycolysis happen if O2 is present?

Back 9

Yes

Front 10

Name the 3 stages of Pyruvate Oxidation

Back 10

1) Carboxyl group is removed from Pyruvate as CO2

2) The remaining 2 C fragment is oxidized to become acetate
(e- --> NAD+ --> NADH)

3) Sulfur containing coenzyme-A binds to acetate forming acetyl CoA

Front 11

What is the net product from the CAC

Back 11

1 ATP, 3 NADH & 1 FADH2

Front 12

What electron carrier(s) move electrons from the CAC to the ETC?

Back 12

NADH & FADH2

Front 13

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Back 13

Collection of molecules (mainly proteins) embedded in the inner layer or mitochondrion membrane which releases energy from the "falling" of electrons in smaller amounts (steps)

Front 14

Proton Motive Force

Back 14

The ETC uses the exergonic flow of electrons to pump H+ ions across the mitocondrian membrane to create a H+ gradient. This is used to power ATP synthase

Front 15

ATP synthase

Back 15

4 sub unit "molecular mill" that uses the H+ gradient created by the ETC to power the synthesis of ATP molecules

Front 16

Anaerobic Respiration

Back 16

ATP production without oxygen -- Uses final e- acceptor other than O2

Front 17

Alcohol Fermentation

Back 17

Pyruvate is converted to alcohol via the reduction of acetylaldehyde by NADH which regenerates NAD+

Front 18

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Back 18

Pyruvate reduced by NADH to lactate when O2 is scarce

Front 19

Photosynthesis

Back 19

Conversion of light energy to the chemical energy of food

Front 20

Chloroplasts

Back 20

Site of photosynthesis

Front 21

What do plant cells have that animal cells do not?

Back 21

Cell wall (strength), Plasmodesmata (connects cells), Central Vacuole (storage & waste breakdown) and Chloroplasts (photosynthesis)

Front 22

Cell Walls

Back 22

Consist of microfibrills of polysaccharide cellulose in a matrix of other polysaccharides & protein

Front 23

Stomata

Back 23

Site of gas exchange (O2 & CO2)

Major avenue for water loss

2 Guard cells regulate opening/closing

Front 24

Stroma

Back 24

Fluid inside cholorplast

Front 25

Thylakoids

Back 25

Third membrane system of sacs in stroma that are stacked in grana

Front 26

Chlorophyll

Back 26

Green pigment that absorbs violet-blue & red light (reflects green) that is found in the thylakoid membrane

Front 27

Describe photosynthesis as a REDOX process

Back 27

CO2 is reduced to sugar
H2O is reduced to O2

Front 28

Light Reactions

Back 28

First stage of photosynthesis where ATP and NADPH are produced for use in the Calvin Cycle & O2 is produced.

(Occurs in Thylakoid membrane)

Front 29

List the two stages of Photosynthesis

Back 29

Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle

Front 30

Describe the basic process of a light reaction

Back 30

1) Energy from light drives the transfer of elections and H+ from water to NADP+ --> NADPH

2) ATP is produced using chemiosmosis (and ATP synthase)

3) ATP & NADPH are then used in the Calivin Cycle

Front 31

Describe the basic process of the Calvin Cycle

Back 31

1) CO2 from the air is incorporated into organic molecules in chloroplast (Carbon Fixation)

2) Fixed carbon is reduced to carbohydrates (sugar) by addition of electrons using the reducing power of NADPH (requires ATP)

Front 32

Photosynthetic Pigments

Back 32

substances that absorb visible light

Front 33

Photosystem

Back 33

Energy from light is passed down from pigment molecule to pigment molecule to a primary electron acceptor.

Front 34

What is the purpose of the 2 chlorophyll a molecules in a photosystem?

Back 34

They are able to use the energy of light to not only boost their electrons but to transfer that electron to the primary electron acceptor

Front 35

What happens in PS I?

Back 35

1) A photon of light excites a pigment which passes the e- to the P680 chlorophyll a pair.

2)P680 passes the electron to the primary e- acceptor.

3) An enzyme splits water into 2 e-, 2H+ and O2 (these e- replace the electrons lost by P680)

Front 36

What happens after an electron reaches the Primary e- acceptor in PS I?

Back 36

The photoexcited e- is passed to PS II by the ETC, passing through the cytochrome complex, which contribes to generating a H+ gradient for ATP synthesis

Front 37

What happens in PS II?

Back 37

1) Light energy is transferred to PS II from the ETC

2) Carried by pigments to P700 which passes the e- on to the electron acceptor

3) electron is passed down the second ETC through ferredoxin (Fd) and NADP+ reductase (catalyzes formation of NADPH)

Front 38

Cyclic Electron Flow

Back 38

A "short circuit" where e- flows back from Fd ETC to cytochrome ETC and then back to the P700 pair. (only ATP is produced)

Front 39

In what organisms does Cyclic Electron Flow occur

Back 39

Photosynthetic bacteria, cyanobacteria & eukaryotic photosynthetic species

Front 40

Calvin Cycle

Back 40

Carbon Fixation + synthesis of sugar in the Stroma

Front 41

List and describe the three phases of the Calvin Cycle

Back 41

1) Carbon Fixation: 1 C from CO2 is attached to a 5C sugar (RuBP) <-- unstable

2) Reduction: Produces G3P using energy from ATP and e- from NADPH

3) Regeneration of RuBP: In a complex series of reactions that require ATP, 5 G3P are rearranged into 3 RuBP

Front 42

Carbon Fixation is catalyzed by?

Back 42

Rubisco - Catalyzes the addition of 1 C to a 5 C sugar

Front 43

Photorespiration

Back 43

Occurs when CO2 is scarce, CO2 is replaced with O2 in the reaction adding 1 C to RuBP in Calvin Cycle

Front 44

Why is Photorespiration wasteful?

Back 44

ATP is required and no sugar is produced + Carbon is removed from the Calvin Cycle

Front 45

In what type of plants does Photorespiration occur?

Back 45

C3

Front 46

What is an alternate mode of Carbon Fixation for a C4 plant?

Back 46

PEP carboylase fixes CO2 as oxaloacetate in outer mesophyll cells

This is later transported to bundle sheaths which release stored CO2

Front 47

What is an alternate mode of Carbon Fixation for a CAM plant?

Back 47

CAM plants take up CO2 at night & incorporate it into organic acids then store it in vacuole of mesophyll cells

Front 48

Stems & Leaves

Back 48

Absorb CO2 and light & are photosynthetic

Front 49

Roots

Back 49

Absorb water and minerals from soil via root hairs, anchor plant in soil and storage (tap root)

Front 50

Vascular System

Back 50

Connects the 2 systems carrying water/minerals from roots to leaves (xylem) & carries photosynthates (sugars) in both directions (phloem)

Front 51

Prop/Buttress Roots

Back 51

Provide structural support

Front 52

Storage Roots

Back 52

Store food/water (i.e. radishes carrots)

Front 53

Pneumataphores

Back 53

Project about the surface in swamps to obtain O2

Front 54

Aerial Roots

Back 54

Sent out by strangler fig seedlings growing in tree tops

Front 55

Rhizomes

Back 55

Horizontal shoots with grow underground

Front 56

Bulbs

Back 56

Vertical underground shoots consisting of enlarged leaf bases which store food

Front 57

Stolons

Back 57

Horizontal shoots growing along the surface giving rise to new plants

Front 58

Tubers

Back 58

Enlarged ends of rhizomes or stolons (potatoes)

Front 59

Tendrils

Back 59

Leaves found in climbing plants

Front 60

Spines

Back 60

Leaves that provide protections

Front 61

Storage Leaves

Back 61

Store water

Front 62

Reproductive Leaves

Back 62

Small adventitious plantlets fall of the leaf and take root

Front 63

Bracts

Back 63

"flower like" modified leaves

Front 64

Dermal Tissue

Back 64

Plants outer protective covering
--> epidermis in non woody plants
--> periderm in woody plants

Front 65

Vascular Tissue

Back 65

Carries out long distance transport (xylem and phloem)

Front 66

Ground Tissue

Back 66

Internal (pith) and external (cortex) to vascular tissue. Specialized for storage

Front 67

Parenchyma Cells

Back 67

Have thin, flexible primary walls, no secondary walls

Large central vacuoles

Perform most metabolic functions of a plant cell

Front 68

Collenchyma Cells

Back 68

Occur in strands & help support young parts of plant shoots

Thick primary walls (strings of celery)

Remain alive at maturity

Front 69

Sclerenchyma Cells

Back 69

Supporting cells with thick secondary walls

Contain lots of lignin

Form wood/hard shells of nuts

Dead at maturity, but lasts hundreds of years

Front 70

Xylem

Back 70

Move water over long distances

Two types: Tracheids & Vessels

Dead at functional maturity, and secondary walls strengthened with lignin

Front 71

Tracheids

Back 71

Long, thin with tapering ends & pits through with water can pass

All plants have this

Front 72

Vessels

Back 72

Short, wide, thin walled tubes stacked end to end with perforation plates between adjacent cells.

Water can pass through perforation plates

Occurs in angiosperms only

Front 73

Phloem

Back 73

Chains of cells called seive tube elements that contain seive plates

Lack nucleus, ribosomes, vacuole & cytoskeleton (enables easier nutrient transportation)

Front 74

Companion Cell

Back 74

Connected to seive tube in Phloem by plasmodesmata & provides metabolic support for both itself and seive tube

Front 75

Apical Meristem

Back 75

Lengthens roots/shoots (primary growth)

Front 76

Lateral Meristem

Back 76

Increases diameter of roots/shoots (secondary growth)

Front 77

Root Cap

Back 77

Protects apical meristem & secretes polysaccharide slime

Front 78

List the 3 zones of cells behind a growing tip of a plant

Back 78

1) Cell divison: Mitotic cells revealed by staining for cyclin

2) Cell Elongation: to 10x the original length

3) Cell Differentiation: Dermal, ground, vascular etc

Front 79

Root Hairs

Back 79

Increase surface area for absorption of water/minerals

Front 80

Shoot Apical Meristem

Back 80

(at tip) shoot elongation occurs due to lengthening of internode cells below tip

Front 81

Leaf Primordia

Back 81

Gives rise to leaves

Front 82

Axilliary Buds

Back 82

Give rise to branching

Front 83

What do monocots have that allow leaves to regrow

Back 83

Some monocots have meristems at the base of stems and leaves (i.e. grass)

Front 84

Palisade Mesophyll

Back 84

Elongated parenchyma cells

Front 85

Spongy mesophyll

Back 85

Loosely packed cells with air spaces

Front 86

Ground Tissue is mostly __________

Back 86

Parenchyma cells

Front 87

Secondary Growth

Back 87

Increases the diameter of roots/shoots

Front 88

Primary Growth

Back 88

Lengthens roots/shoots

Front 89

Vascular Cambium

Back 89

1 Cell thick cylidner of meristem cells

Adds secondary xylem & secondary phloem increasing vascular flow and support

Front 90

Vascular Cambium meristem cell

Back 90

Can divide to form another stem cell (C), secondary xylem (X) or secondary phloem cell (P)

Can produce more xylem than phloem

Front 91

Heartwood

Back 91

Old secondary xylem layers

Front 92

Sapwood

Back 92

New secondary xylem layers (still transfer sap)

Front 93

Bark

Back 93

Secondary Phloem & periderm

Front 94

Periderm

Back 94

Cork cells which deposit suberin

Front 95

Suberin

Back 95

A wasy hydrophobic material that protects stem

Front 96

Transpiration

Back 96

Loss of water from leaves

Front 97

Phloem Sap

Back 97

Transfers sugars in both directions from site of production to site of storage

Front 98

Xylem Sap

Back 98

Transports water from roots to shoots

Front 99

Gas Exchange

Back 99

Through stomata in leaves

Front 100

Apoplast

Back 100

Tissue compartment exterior to plasma membrane (i.e. cell wall, tracheids)

Front 101

Symplast

Back 101

Cytosol of all plants living cells and plasmodesmata

Front 102

Apoplastic route

Back 102

Movement of water/solutes along continuum of cell wall and extra cellular spaces

Front 103

Symplastic route

Back 103

Movement of water/solutes along continuum of cytosol

Front 104

Transmembrane route

Back 104

Water/solutes moves out of one cell, across cell wall and across plasma membrane into another cell

Front 105

Water Potential

Back 105

Direction of movement of water by osmosis

= osmotic potential + pressure

Front 106

Water moves from _____ water potential to _____ water potential

Back 106

Water moves from high water potential to low water potential

Front 107

Solutes have what effect on water potential

Back 107

Solutes decrease osmotic water potential

Front 108

If the cellular water potential > environment water potential

Back 108

Water moves out of the cell (high to low)

Cell membrane/cytoplasm shrink and pull away from cell wall = plasmolysis

Front 109

If the cellular water potential < environment water potential

Back 109

Water moves into the cell (high to low)

Cell swells and is opposed by turgor pressure from elastic cell wall

Front 110

Bulk flow

Back 110

Movement of water in response to a pressure gradient

High to low pressure

Occurs in xylem and sieve tube elements of phloem

MUCH faster than diffusion (15 - 45 m/hour)

Front 111

Symplastic Route in xylem

Back 111

Minerals already in the symplast have already been "screened" by the selectively permeable plasma membrane

These materials access xylem via the plasmodesmata

Front 112

Apoplastic route in xylem

Back 112

Water/minerals diffuse into cortex along matrix of cell walls and extra cellular spaces

These materials enter the xylem after passing through plasma membrane, guided by the casparian strip

Front 113

Casparian Strip

Back 113

A belt of suberin which is impermeable to water, that forces materials to pass through the plasma membrane

Front 114

Secondary Mechanism of Bulk Flow

Back 114

At night there is no transpiration but root cells continue to pump ions into xylem

Accumulating solutes lower water potential in the xylem and water flows in via osmosis from cortex = root pressure

Front 115

Describe the generation of Transpirational Pull

Back 115

1) Water diffuses from moist air spaces to drier air

2) Initially water is replaced from water film that coats mesophyll cells

3) Evaporation of water film generates surface tension (negative pressure)

4) Surface tension pulls water from surrounding cells which pulls water from xylem = transpirational pull

Front 116

Cohesion - Tension Hypothesis

Back 116

Water is pulled up xylem molecule by molecule due to adhesion and cohesion forces

Front 117

Adhesion

Back 117

Attractive force between water molecules and other polar molecules that offsets the downwards force of gravity

Front 118

Cohesion

Back 118

Attractive force between water molecules by hydrogen bonding

Front 119

How is the rate of transpiration regulated?

Back 119

Stomatal density (95% of water loss) and the opening and closing of stomata.

Front 120

Guard Cells

Back 120

Bow out when they take up water

Become less bowed when they loose water

Front 121

How do stomata open and close?

Back 121

Active transport of H+ outside of cell creates H+ gradient

Drives K+ ions into guard cell which decreases water potential

Water enters cell (high to low water potential) by osmosis

Front 122

Aquaporin Channels

Back 122

Helps regulate water movement (and thereby opening/closing) in guard cells of stomata

Front 123

Translocation

Back 123

The movement of sugar from sources to sinks by phloem

Front 124

How is sucrose loaded into phloem?

Back 124

Active transport involving a H+ pump & co-transporter pump sucrose into phloem (Chemiosmosis)

Front 125

What are the 9 Macronutrients?

Back 125

C, H, O, N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg

Front 126

What are the 8 Micronutrients

Back 126

Cl, Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Cu, Ni, Mo

Front 127

Hydrophonic Culture

Back 127

Identifies 17 essential elements needed by all plants

Front 128

Chlorosis

Back 128

Yellowing of leaves due to Mg deficiency

Front 129

Decomposers

Back 129

Soil bacteria living on decaying material from dead plants

Front 130

Rhizobacteria

Back 130

Live in rhizosphere

Front 131

Rhizosphere

Back 131

A soil layer that forms a microbe-enriched ecosystem bound to plant roots or inside plants

Front 132

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria

Back 132

Live in soil and root nodules + produces NH3 (ammonia)

Front 133

Mycorrhizae

Back 133

Mutualistic association of fungi and roots

Front 134

What is the role of rhizosphere soil bacteria?

Back 134

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria produce NH3

NH3 + H+ = ammonium (NH4) = main form of nitrogen used by plants

Front 135

Denitrifying bacteria

Back 135

Convert NO3- to N2 so N is lost from soil

Front 136

Ectomycorrhizae

Back 136

Fungal mycelium forms dense sheath over surface of roots which leads to and increase in SA

Front 137

Fungal Hypae

Back 137

Extend into soil = increase in SA.

Front 138

How is the relationship between fungal hypae and roots mutualistic?

Back 138

Fungus gets access to supply of carbs and AA's because hypae extend into roots in extra cellular spaces between root cells

Front 139

Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (endomycorrhizae)

Back 139

No dense sheath (like ectomycorrhizae)

Hypae penetrate between epidermal cells into root cortex

Digest small patch of cell wall and for tube like processes that invaginate into cell wall without penetrating membrane

Front 140

Sporophyte

Back 140

Diploid (2n) & dominant

Front 141

Gametophyte

Back 141

Haploid (n) & microscopic

Contains generative cell and tube cell

Front 142

Describe the development of a male gametophyte

Back 142

Anthers contain microsporangium which contain microsporocytes (2n)

Microsporocytes undergo meiosis and form 4 microspores (n)

Microspores undergo mitosis and form a male gametophye

Front 143

Describe the development of a female gametophyte

Back 143

Megasporangium contains diploid megasporocytes

Megasporocytes undergo meiosis forming 4 haploid megaspores (only 1 survives)

Megaspore undergos 3 mitotic phases creating 8 haploid nuclei

Front 144

Polar Nuclei

Back 144

2 are produced with development of female gametophyte

form endosperm

Front 145

Synergids

Back 145

2 are produced with development of female gametophyte

Guide pollen tube to embryo sac

Front 146

Pollination

Back 146

Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma

Front 147

Sperm + egg =

Back 147

zygote, which is diploid (2n) = embryo

Front 148

Sperm + 2 polar nuclei =

Back 148

endosperm, which is triploid (3n)

Function = food storage

Front 149

Positive Phototropism

Back 149

Growth of tip towards light

Front 150

Auxin

Back 150

hormone for stem elongation

Front 151

Cytokinins

Back 151

Hormone for cell division in shoots

Front 152

Gibberellins

Back 152

Hormone for stem elongnation

Front 153

Brassinosterads

Back 153

Hormone for cell expansion/divison in shoots

Front 154

ABA

Back 154

Hormone that inhibits growth in plants

Front 155

Ethylene

Back 155

Hormone that stimulates ripening of fruit

Front 156

Describe the role of Gibberellins (GA) in seed germination

Back 156

GA sends signals to shell --> secretes enzymes which break down sugars and other nutrients

Front 157

Epithelial Tissue

Back 157

Skin, lining of things

Front 158

Connective Tissue

Back 158

Structure of other tissues, blood, bone

Front 159

Nervous Tissue

Back 159

Neurons and parts of the nervous system

Front 160

Regulators

Back 160

Use internal control mechanisms to regulate and maintain internal environment

Front 161

Conformers

Back 161

Allow internal environment to change with change in external environment

Front 162

Set point

Back 162

Physiological variables are maintained near or at this point in the body

**Depends on negative feedback control loops**

Front 163

Thermoregulation

Back 163

The process by which animals maintain an internal body temperature within a certain range

Front 164

Endotherms

Back 164

Heat mainly produced by metabolism (thermogenisis)

Front 165

Ectotherms

Back 165

Heat gain mainly from the environment

Front 166

Ways to regulate heat loss/gain

Back 166

Insulation
Circulatory adjustments
Evaporative heat loss (panting/sweating)
Behavioural Responses

Front 167

What controls thermoregulation in humans

Back 167

Hypothalamus (thermostat)
Circulatory responses

Front 168

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

Back 168

Minimum MR in a non-growing endotherm at rest, no digestion & not thermoregulating

**Linear relationship between body mass and BMR***

Front 169

Essential Amino Acids

Back 169

Methionine, Valine, Threonine, Phenylalanine, Leucine, Isoleucine, Tryptophan & Lysine

Front 170

Essential Vitamins

Back 170

A, B, C, D

Front 171

What kind of Fatty Acids are essential to your diet?

Back 171

Unsaturated

Front 172

Intracellular digestion

Back 172

Simplest design --> cell engulfs food and breaks in down in vacuoles

Front 173

Extracellular digestion

Back 173

Hydrolysis of food in compartments that are continuous with environment

This way, larger food can be processed

Front 174

Substrate feeders

Back 174

Live in or on their food source

Front 175

Fluid Feeders

Back 175

Suck nutrient rich fluid from a living host

Front 176

Suspension Feeders

Back 176

Sift small food particles from water

Front 177

Bulk feeders

Back 177

ingest large pieces of food

Front 178

What are the 4 stages of food processing?

Back 178

Ingestion
Digestion
Absorption
Elimination

Front 179

Adaptations in the mammalian stomach for digestion

Back 179

Elastic stomach wall
Muscular stomach wall = churning
Folded epithelial tissue
Secretion of gastric juices (HCl, pepsin, mucus)

Front 180

Adaptiations for nutrient absorption in the mammalian digestive system

Back 180

Highly folded surface -- villi
Each epithelial cell has microvilli
High concentration of membrane bound proteins
Extensive blood supply

Front 181

Appetite regulating hormones

Back 181

Leptin
Ghrelin
Insulin
PYY

Front 182

Gas exchange by diffusion/osmosis is effiecient...

Back 182

Over short distances

Front 183

Open circulatory system

Back 183

Common to arthropods/most mollusks

Circulatory fluid = hemolymph

Bathes organs directly + multiple tubular hears

Low pressure = low energy cost

Front 184

Closed circulatory system

Back 184

Common to all vertabrates

Circulatory Fluid = Blood

High pressure = increased O2 delivery effectiveness

Front 185

Amphibian Circulatory System

Back 185

3 - Chambered Heart

Pulmocutaneous Circuit = lungs + skin

Capable of Shunting

Incomplete separation of oxygenated & deoxygenated blood

Front 186

Shunting

Back 186

Redistribution of blood flow away from lungs when underwater

Front 187

Reptilian Circulatory System

Back 187

3 Chambered heart with partially dividing septum

Incomplete separation of blood in ventricle

Capable of shunting

Front 188

Reptilian Circulatory System (Crocodiles only)

Back 188

4-chambered heart with vessel between pulmonary & systemic curcuit

Front 189

Mammalian Circulatory System

Back 189

4 Chambered heart with fully divided ventricle

No shunting

Extensive capillary system

Front 190

Cardiac Cycle

Back 190

0.8 sec @ 72 bpm

Front 191

Systole

Back 191

Contraction Phase

Front 192

Diastole

Back 192

Relaxation Phase

Front 193

Describe the path of blood

Back 193

Lungs --> Pul. Vein --> L. Atrium --> L. Ventricle --> Aorta --> top/bottom body --> Inferior/Superior Vena Cava --> R. Atrium --> R. Ventricle --> Lungs

Front 194

Artery

Back 194

Very thick smooth muscle layer to deal with high blood pressure of blood coming from heart

Front 195

Vein

Back 195

Thin layer of smooth muscle, carries blood to the heart

Front 196

Cardiac Output

Back 196

Total blood ejected

= heart rate * stroke volume

Front 197

Vasoconstriction

Back 197

Contraction of smooth muscle

Front 198

Vasodilations

Back 198

Relaxation of smooth muscle

Front 199

What controls Vasoconstrictions & Vasodilations?

Back 199

Nervous system (PNS & SNS)
Hormones
Local Control by endothelium

Front 200

Precapillary Sphincters

Back 200

Regulate capillary blood flow by opening or closing

Front 201

How are substances exchanged between blood and interstitial fluid across endothelium of capillary walls

Back 201

Fluid is removed by the lymphatic system at a rate that equals the net filtration loss from the capillaries

Front 202

Gas exchange in air

Back 202

O2 is plentiful
Less dense/viscous
Reletively easy but not efficient (bi directional)

Front 203

Gas exchange in water

Back 203

40x less air
High density/viscous
Energy demanding
Unidirectional = high efficeincy

Front 204

Gill Structure

Back 204

Net diffusion of O2 from water to blood occurs in gill lamelli

Front 205

Tracheal system in Insects

Back 205

Air filled tubes which permeate the body

Front 206

Inhalation

Back 206

Diaphragm contracts = moves down

Front 207

Exhalation

Back 207

Diaphragn relaxes = moves up

Front 208

How is breathing controlled?

Back 208

Automatically

Medulla oblongata sets basic ryhtm
Pons = modulates rythm

ph (CO2 concentration) of cerebrospinal fluid and ph sensors in major blood vessels

Front 209

How does CO2 production affect pH?

Back 209

CO2 production decreases pH

Front 210

Low pH

Back 210

Decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for O2

Front 211

Bohr Shift

Back 211

More O2 is unloaded in active tissues

Front 212

How is CO2 transported?

Back 212

1) 70% as HCO3-
2) 23% bound to AA in Hb
3) 7% in solution in blood plamsa

Front 213

Barrier Defenses

Back 213

First stop pathogens from entering the body (i.e. skin)

Front 214

Molecular Recognition

Back 214

Specific receptors dectect a small number of highly conserved molecules present in many different pathogens

Front 215

Toll Like Receptors (TRL)

Back 215

Binding of these receptors to a specific molecule initiates a signalling cascade + innate immune response

Front 216

TLR4

Back 216

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)

Front 217

TLR3

Back 217

Double Stranded RNA (virus)

Front 218

TLR5

Back 218

Bacterial Flagellum Protein

Front 219

Innate Immunity

Back 219

In all animals/plants

Response is not adaptive

Rapid response

Front 220

4 Types of phogocytic cells

Back 220

Natural Killer Cell
Macrophage
Dendritic Cells
Neutrophils

Front 221

Fever

Back 221

The resetting of set point to higher temp

Front 222

Adaptive Immunity

Back 222

Only in vertebrates

Animals produce a vast number and diversity of receptors each recognizing a small part of pathogen molecule

Slower response

Front 223

B-Cells

Back 223

Develop and mature in bone marrow

Front 224

T-Cell

Back 224

Develop in bone marrow & mature in thymus gland

Front 225

Humoral Immune Response

Back 225

Antibodies (B-Cells) mark pathogens for destruction in blood/lymph

Front 226

Cell Mediated Immune Response

Back 226

Cytotoxic (T-Cells) destroy infected host using toxic gene products

Front 227

Osmoregulation

Back 227

The balancing of uptake and loss of water & solutes

Front 228

Excretion

Back 228

The removal of excess solutes, nitrogenous metabolites and other wastes

Front 229

Osmoconformer

Back 229

Organisms which allows its osmolarity to change with the osmolarity of the environment

Front 230

Osmoregulator

Back 230

Organism which regulates its osmolarity regardless of the osmolarity of the enivironment

Front 231

Describe osmoregulatory problems in Marine Fish

Back 231

Body fluids hypoosmotic to seawater

Lose water via osmosis so they drink lots of water

This causes an excess of solutes

Front 232

Describe the solution to osmoregulatory problems in Marine Fish

Back 232

Chloride cells remove Cl- ions and Na+ follow passively

Kidneys also remove Ca, Mg, & SO4-

Front 233

Describe osmoregulatory problems in Freshwater Fish

Back 233

Hyperosmotic to freshwater

Continuously gain water

Lose Solutes by diffusion

Front 234

Describe the solution to osmoregulatory problems in Freshwater Fish

Back 234

Chloride cells actively transport Cl- and Na+ follows passively