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127 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Name the leukocyte responsible for removing ruptured and worn out red blood cells from blood? |
After 120 days RBC'S start to fall apart and become trapped in spleen, liver and bone marrow. This causes macrophages to engulf and destroy these RBC'S (from monocytes) |
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What happens to the globin portion? |
The globin (protein) is broken down and its amino acids are released into the circulation to be used for protein synthesis. |
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What happens to the iron portion of the heme group? |
The iron portion of the heme group is extracted from the heme molecules and released into the bloodstream bound to transferrin (plasma protein). |
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What is the pathway of the non-iron portion of the heme group to permanent removal from the body? |
The iron stripped portion is degraded to bilirubin (yellow pigment molecule). Bilirubin is the molecule liver excretes in bile. When bile reaches the intestine some bilirubin to urobilinogen (gives waste its colour) |
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What is the blood, antigen and antibody type of this image? |
Blood type = A Antigen = A Antibody = Anti-B Antibody |
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What is the blood, antigen and antibody type of this image? |
Blood type = B Antigen = B Antibody = Anti-A Antibody |
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What is the blood, antigen and antibody type of this image? |
Blood type = AB Antigen = AB Antibody = Neither Antibody |
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What is the blood, antigen and antibody type of this image? |
Blood type = O Antigen = Neither A nor B Antibody = Both Anti-A and Anti-B Antibodies |
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What is the universal blood type? |
Blood type O |
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What is Lymph? |
Lymph is excess interstitial fluid that is absorbed into lymphatic vessels known as lymphatic capillaries. |
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How is a blood clot formed?
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1. Fibrinogen is turned into insoluble protein fibrin.
2. blood clot is formed - as fibrin network grows, blood cells & platelets are trapped in fibrous tangle, forming clot & sealing off damaged portion of vessel. 3. Clot is formed within 3-6 mins after blood vessel is damaged. |
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Elaborate on the 3 stages of Clotting:
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1. Prothrombinase- either extrinsic or intrinsic pathway,resulting in activation of Factor X, forming the enzyme.
2. Thrombin- the enzyme prothrombinase activates an inactive protein called prothrombinto make thrombin. 3. Fibrin- Thrombin converts a soluble plasma protein called fibrinogen into an insoluble fibers of fibrin. |
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What are the biochemicals involved in clotting referred to as?
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Clotting factors |
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The entire process from haemocytoblast to mature RBC takes __-__ days.
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5 to 7 days |
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The rate at which RBCs are formed is controlled by a hormone ________, produced by the ________.
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Erythropoietin, Kidneys
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What is coagulation/blood clotting? |
Coagulation involves a complex sequence of steps leading to conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. |
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How does coagulation occur? |
As fibrin grows, blood cells and additional platelets become trapped in fibrous tangle, forming a blood clot (blood clot is formed after 3 to 6 minutes of damage) |
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What type of white blood cell is this, is it granulocyte or a agranulocyte? |
It is a neutrophil and it is a granulocyte (with granules). |
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What type of white blood cell is this, is it granulocyte or a agranulocyte?
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It is a eosinophil and it is a granulocyte (with granules). |
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What type of white blood cell is this, is it granulocyte or a agranulocyte?
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It is a basophil and it is a granulocyte (with granules). |
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What type of white blood cell is this, is it granulocyte or a agranulocyte?
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It is a monocyte and it is a agranulocyte (without granules). |
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What type of white blood cell is this, is it granulocyte or a agranulocyte?
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It is a lymphocyte and it is a agranulocyte (without granules). |
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What are the functions of the lymphatic system? |
*Maintaining fluid balance *Filtration (lymph and foreign substances) *Protection (macrophage and lymphocytes) *Absorption of fats (pathway for lipids and vitamin D,E,K,A) *Maintaining homeostasis |
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What is the flow of lymph? |
blood capillaries (blood plasma) -> interstitial spaces (interstitial fluid) -> lymphatic capillaries (lymph) -> lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes (lymph) -> lymphatic ducts (lymph) -> junction of jugular and subclavian veins (blood plasma) |
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How is lymph generated? |
Lymph is formed by blood as it flows through leaky capillaries, fluid is pushed out into surrounding tissues (by the pressure of the blood) and supplies oxygen and nutrients to the cells. |
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What is the 1st line of defence made up of? |
*Skin and mucous membranes (physical barrier) *Secretions of skin, sweat, oil, saliva, stomach acid, lysozymes, enzymes (chemical) |
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What is the 2nd line of defence made up of? |
*Antimicrobial proteins *Phagocytic white blood cells *Inflammation (inflammatory response) *Natural Killer cells |
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What is the 3rd line of defence made up of? |
*A specific defence mechanism *Lymphocytes (B and T cells) *Antibodies |
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What are the four signs of inflammation? |
*Pain *Redness *Swelling *Heat |
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What is active immunity? |
exposure to the antigen either as the microbe (naturally) or in a vaccine (artificially). |
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What is passive immunity? |
using antibodies which are donated from someone else (provides short-term protection). |
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An example of passive immunity is? |
A mother's antibodies cross the placenta during pregnancy or transferred through breastfeeding post birth |
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What are the 3 important characteristics of the 3rd line of defense?
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1. Antigen specific recognizes & acts against particular pathogens/foreign substances.
2. Systemic Immunity is not restricted to initial infection site, immune cells travel around blood, lymph & tissues. 3. Memory (it has memory). |
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What is antibody-mediated immunity? |
Involves B cells, they can recognize & bind directly to an antigen. Undergoes rapid division to produce a family of identical clone cells. Most clones become plasma cells producing huge numbers of antibodies. B cells that do not become plasma cells become long-lived memory B cells.
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What is cell-mediated immunity? |
Involves T lymphocytes (T cells). Rapidly divide to produce an army of identical clone cells mostlyactivated T cells & memory T cells. Inactive T cells are called helper T cells; these circle around activating killer cells.
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What is Vasodilation (Inflammation)?
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An increase in the diameter of blood vessels that allows more blood to flow to the damaged area & helps remove microbial toxins & dead cells.
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What is a Cytotoxic (killer) T cell?
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Search for infected cells displaying foreign antigens on their surfaces. Bind to infected cells & insert a toxic chemical which causes the cell to burst. The release chemicals which attract fresh macrophages to the infection site.
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What is a memory T cell?
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Long-lived cells that remain in lymphatic tissue for years. First encounter stimulates the primary response that produces the memory cells. Recognize & respond to the same antigen again each time it invades the body.
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What are the four chambers of the heart? |
*Left Atrium (red) *Right Atrium (blue) *Left Ventricle (red) *Right Ventricle (blue) |
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What are the valves of the heart? |
*Atrioventricular Tricuspid (blue) *Atrioventricular Bicuspid (red) *Pulmonary semilunar valve (blue) *Aortic valve (red) |
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What are the blood vessels (veins and arteries)? |
*Left and right pulmonary arteries (blue) *Pulmonary trunk (blue) *Superior vena cava (blue) *Inferior vena cava (blue) *Left and right aorta (red) |
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What is the flow of the pulmonary circuit (in order)? |
1. Vena Cava 2. Right Atrium 3. Tricuspid AV Valve 4. Right Ventricle 5. Pulmonary valve (semilunar) 6. Pulmonary trunk 7. lungs (loses C02 and gains 02) 8. Pulmonary veins x4 |
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What is the flow of the systemic circuit (in order)? |
1. Left atrium 2. Bicuspid AV Valve 3. Left Ventricle 4. Aortic Valve (semilunar) 5. heart - O2 rich blood travels to body cells & tissues and gains CO2 |
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The superior vena cava returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium from the ___ & ___. The interior returns it from the ____ ____ of the body, and the coronary ____ receives blood from the heart muscle & returns it to the right atrium.
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Head & Neck.
Lower (inferior) regions. Coronary sinus. |
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What is A?
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Pericardium |
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What is B? |
Pericardial Cavity |
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What is C? |
Epicardium |
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What is D? |
Coronary Blood Vessels |
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What is E? |
Myocardium (cardiac muscle) |
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What is F? |
Endocardium |
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Heart contractions are called _______ Heart relaxation periods are termed _______ |
Systole Diastole |
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What is the cardiac output equation? |
Stroke Volume x Heart Rate = Cardiac Output |
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What are baroreceptors? |
Baroreceptors detect short term changes in blood pressure associated with posture. |
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What are proprioceptors? |
Proprioceptors detect and monitor joint movements about posture. |
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What is the average basic contraction rate of the heart? |
70 beats per minute (70ml is the approximate amount of blood pumped out by each heartbeat). |
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What percentage of the body is blood? |
8% |
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What are the four stages of food processing? |
*Ingestion (eating) *Digestion (mechanical/physical) *Absorption (nutrients and monomer into blood) *Elimination/excretion (undigested remains/waste) |
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What is the structure of the gut wall that is made from surface epithelium and underlying connective tissue? |
Muscosa (mucous membrane) |
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What is the structure of the gut wall that is made of connective tissue containing blood and lymphatic vessels? |
Sub Mucosa |
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What is the structure of the gut wall that is made of layers of smooth muscle? |
Muscularis |
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What is the structure of the gut wall that is made of secretory glands and nerve fibers? |
Serosa |
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Saliva contains salivary amylase, an enzyme that breaks down _____ into _____.
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Starch into maltose
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Following the consumption of a meal and for the subsequent 3-4 hours, the body is in an _______ state, where food substances are being absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract into the bloodstream.
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Absorptive (feasting)
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When these absorptive processes are completed, the body enters a ________ state. In this state, the bodies needs are met by materials already present in the body.
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Post-absorptive (fasting)
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What happens during the absorptive state (feasting)? |
During the absorptive state increasing blood glucose levels stimulate the secretion of insulin from the pancreas. |
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What is Insulin's role in the absorptive state (feasting)? |
Insulin can:
*Help transport glucose into cells *Stimulates storage of glucose as glycogen *Uptake of amino acids into skeletal muscles *stimulates the production of energy reserves (glycogen and fats) |
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What happens in the post absorptive state (fasting)? |
Glucose levels in the blood start to fall, as glucose continues to leave the bloodstream and enters the blood cells. Blood glucose levels need to be maintained during the post absorptive state. Glucose production and conservation help this. |
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____ ____ are taken up by body cells and used for protein synthesis. In the liver, excesses of these are broken down into keto acids and used for energy or stored as fat, (in the liver)
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Amino acids
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What is the equation (in words) for cellular respiration?
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Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP) |
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An example of what ATP is needed/used for would be?
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Active Transport Processes |
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Where does Glycolysis occur, (what comes in and goes out)? |
*Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm *Glucose comes in *Two molecules of pyruvic acid are formed for each glucose molecule *Some ATP is generated *Some e- are captured (on carriers) |
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Where does the Kreb's Cycle occur, (what comes in and goes out)? |
*The Kreb's Cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria *Pyruvic acid comes in *Converted to a two carbon fragment forming acetyl co enzyme *Small amount of ATP is produced *Some e- are captured (on carriers) |
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The formation of a molecule known as ____ ___ __ is a transition step that prepares pyruvic acid for entrance into the Krebs cycle.
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Acetyl Co-enzyme A |
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Where does the Electron Transport Chain occur, (what comes in and goes out)? |
*The Electron Transport Chain occurs in the inner membrane called cristae of the mitochondrion *e- on carriers from Kreb's cycle and Glycolysis come in *Oxygen goes in to form H20 |
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What happens when the high energy bonds of the 3 phosphate groups in ATP are broken? |
Breaking the end high energy bond produces a molecule of ADP (Adenosine diphosphate), containing the two phosphate groups, and the seperated phosphate group (P). |
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What is the equation of ADP? |
ATP = ADP + P + ENERGY |
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What are the major functions of the urinary system? |
*Adjusting blood volume and blood pressure *Regulating plasma concentrations (sodium, potassium, chloride and other ions) *Stabilizing valuable nutrients *Removing drugs and toxins from the bloodstream (wastes) |
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What are the major organs of the urinary system? |
A = Right kidney B = Left Kidney C = Right Ureter D = Left Ureter E = Bladder F = Urethra |
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Label the structure of the nephron |
A = Bowman's Capsule B = Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) C = Loop of Henle D = Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) E = Collecting Duct |
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What order does the urine take from the collecting duct to the bladder? |
Collecting duct -> Renal pelvis -> Ureter -> Bladder |
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What are the 3 basic processes that result in the formation of urine? |
1. Filtration (at the glomerulus) 2. Re-absorption (in the tubules) 3. Secretion (in the tubules) |
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What structures are specialized for glomerular filtration? |
The capillaries of the glomerulus and the surrounding bowman's capsule are designed for filtration. |
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Why is the glomerulus and the bowman's capsule specialized for filtration? |
This is because the capillaries and inner layer of the capsule are filled with pores and silts that allow water and solutes to pass the across capsule space.
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What structures are specialized for re-absorption and secretion ? |
The proximal convoluted tubules and the distal convoluted tubules are designed for re-absorption and secretion. |
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Why is the proximal and distal convoluted tubule specialized for re-absorption and secretion? |
Tubules are lined with a single layer of epithelial cells that are specialized for active and passive transport of materials across the tubule wall. |
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Describe re-absorption in detail |
When filtrate flows through the kidney tubules it re-absorbs glucose, salts and amino acids. When re-absorption occurs the solute concentration of the tubular fluid decreases and that of the peritubular fluid increases. Osmosis then pulls water of the tubular fluid and into the peritubular fluid. |
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Describe secretion in detail |
Secretion helps to rid the body of excess hydrogen and potassium ions. This maintains the pH of the blood and usually acidic urine. some drugs and poisons are also secreted. |
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The re-absorption of water and sodium chloride in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct is under control of the hormones called |
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and Aldosterone |
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What does the presence of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) in the blood cause? |
The appearance of water channels called aquaporins in the DCT and CT. When this occurs these tubule cells reabsorb more water back into the bloodstream, which results in a smaller volume of concentrated urine being formed. |
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What does the presence of Aldosterone in the blood cause? |
When aldosterone is present in the blood the DCT and CT tubule reabsorb more sodium, chloride follows and water (by osmosis). This is useful in retaining water and ions in the body and reducing their loss in urine. |
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What percentage of our body weight is water? |
55% to 60% |
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What does the extracellular fluid contain? |
ECF contains a high concentration of sodium and chloride ions (salty solution similar to dilute seawater) |
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What does the intercellular fluid contain? |
ICF contains much less sodium and chloride concentrations but much greater amounts of potassium, phosphate and protein. |
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Fluid balance in the kidneys is regulated by two hormones known as: |
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and Aldosterone |
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How is ADH released ? |
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the increased osmotic pressure of blood and trigger the release of ADH from the posterior pituitary gland. |
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What does ADH do? |
ADH increases the blood volume and it is very important in maintaining normal blood pressure especially if there has been a significant drop in blood pressure (due to severe dehydration or bleeding). |
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What happens if the osmotic pressure of blood drops below normal? |
the osmoreceptors become quiet and ADH secretion is shut down. This prevents the re-absorption of water from the DCT and CD allowing more water to be lost in urine. |
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The release of ADH from the posterior pituitary gland is? |
A negative feedback mechanism |
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What is the effect of alcohol on the production of ADH? |
Alcohol inhibits the secretion of ADH causing the production of large volumes of dilute urine. Large amounts of alcohol can dehydrate the body as water is lost resulting in a dry mouth, strong thirst and headache the following morning. |
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Where is aldosterone produced? |
Aldosterone is produced by adrenal cortex |
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Why is aldosterone produced? |
The major stimulus for its release is due to a drop in blood pressure that activates the renin-angiotensin pathway. A decrease in blood sodium levels can also stimulate the secretion of aldosterone directly. |
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What is the renin-angiotensin pathway? |
A cluster of specialized cells where the afferent arteriole and distal convoluted tubule lie close to eachother to make up the juxtaglomerular apparatus |
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What happens when aldosterone is produced from the adrenal cortex? |
The distal convoluted tubules and collecting duct of the kidney tubules reabsorb more sodium and water back into blood and decreased urine output from the kidney This causes blood volume to increase as well as sodium resulting in blood pressure being returned to normal. |
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What is meiosis? |
Meiosis is the production of gametes which involves a special type of cell division. *2 successive divisions of a diploid stem cell (meiosis I and II). *resulting in the production of 4 genetically unique daughter cells. |
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What is semen? |
A mixture of: *Sperm *Testicular fluid *Secretions of seminal vesicles *Prostate glands *Bulbourethral glands |
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What is the normal sperm count of sperm? |
Approximately 50 to 130 million sperm cells per milliliter of sperm cells of semen. |
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When are men likely to be infertile?
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When the sperm count falls to 20 million per milliliter of sperm cells. |
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What is the final pH of semen? |
7.2 pH to 7.4 pH |
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How many sperm does a man produce per day? |
400 million sperm per day (only one sperm is required to fertilize the egg) |
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Why are alkaline milky fluids of semen important? |
Alkaline milky fluids are important for the survival in acidic conditions of the male urethra and female vagina. |
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How is fructose provided to sperm and what is the function of fructose? |
*It is provided by the seminal fluids *Fructose is the fuel source of sperm |
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What does fructose contain? |
*Chemicals that activate and enhance the mobility of sperm (prostaglandins and enzymes) *Anti-microbial proteins (to destroy bacteria)*Substances that prevent the immune response
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What do clotting factors in semen cause? |
Clotting factors in semen cause it to become coagulated (semi-solid). This allows sperm to stick to the walls of the vagina and prevent it from drying out. |
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What is fibrinogen do to sperm? |
Fibrinogen liquefies the sticky mass enabling the sperm to swim out and begin its journey through the female duct system. |
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What is spermatogenesis? |
The production of sperm. |
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Where does spermatogenesis occur? |
It occurs in the walls of the seminiferous tubules of the testes. |
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When does spermatogenesis begin to occur? |
It begins in puberty and occurs throughout life. |
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How long does it take for the entire process of spermatogenesis to be completed? |
64 to 72 days in total |
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What is the logical sequence of spermatogenesis? |
*Spermatogonia *Mitosis *Primary spermatocytes *Meiosis I *Secondary spermatocytes *Meiosis II *Spermatids *Mature/develop (spermatids) *Spermatozoa |
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What is a spermatogonia? |
A single spermatogonium located on the outer wall of each tubule wall |
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What is a primary spermatocyte? |
A spermatogonium differentiates and develops into primary spermatocytes (Meiosis I) This is a diploid cell meaning that it contains 2 sets of chromosomes (46 chromosomes) |
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What is a secondary spermatocyte? |
Each primary spermatocyte divides into two secondary spermatocytes. These are known as haploid cells meaning they have half the number of chromosomes (23 chromosomes) |
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What is a spermatid? |
The two secondary spermatocyte divides again giving a total of 4 spermatids that contain 23 chromosomes (haploid cells) Spermatids are incapable of being moved and not yet fertile |
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What is the final stage of sperm development? |
The final stage of sperm development in the tubules is called spermogenesis and it involves streamlining and forming a tail for propelling itself to get the egg. |
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What is oogenesis? |
oogenesis is the formation of and development of female gametes (ooccytes or eggs) |
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Where does oogenesis? |
It begins in the utero and the process begins at 5 to 6 weeks of embryonic life (it is not completed unless a sperm penetrates through the wall of the ovum). |
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What is the logical sequence of formation of gametes? |
*Oogonia (46 chromosomes) *Primary oocytes (46 chromosomes) *Primary follicle *Secondary oocyte *Ovum *Zygote |
