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43 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

Organism

an individual animal, plant, or single-celled life form.

Chromosome

a thread-like structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carryinggenetic information in the form of genes.

DNA

Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid


deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material which is present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.

Nitrogenous bases (DNA)

-Adenine


-Thymine


-Cytosine


-Guanine

Nucleotide

a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group. Nucleotides form the basic structural unit of nucleic acids such as DNA.

Locus

The specific location of a gene on a chromosome.

DNA vs. RNA

Deoxyribose sugar - Ribose sugar


Double helix - Single stranded


Thymine - Uracil

Protein Synthesis

the process by which individual amino acids are connected to each other ina specific order dictated by the nucleotide sequence in DNA, which alsoinvolves the processes of transcription and translation

Transcription

Transcription occurs in the nucleus.


-weak hydrogen bonds break after the dan unzips


-RNA polymerase (enzyme) helps break the weak hydrogen bonds.


-free floating RNA nucleotides match up with their RNA base pair.


-RNA polymerase bonds the RNA nucleotides together to form messenger RNA (mRNA)


-DNA splits temporarily to be copied by the RNA


-It then re-zips

Translation

-mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the ribosomes.


-Proteins are made on the ribosomes using the genetic code which was copied from the DNA from the mRNA.

Codon

3 bases together (e.g. AUG)


note. AUG is the start of a protein for mRNA. `

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

The tRNA is the direct pair for a codon for mRNA, called an anticodon. (3 bases paired together)



Each code has a specific amino acid. In order, the tRNA pairs up and then drops off its amino acid in a chain called a polypeptide chain. The tRNA then goes and finds another amino acid to add to the chain.

Types of Macromolecules

-Nucleic Acids


-Proteins


-Carbohydrates


-Lipids

Proteins

Primary - Polypeptide chain


Secondary - Folding


Tertiary - 3-Dimensional structure. Bonding occurs.


Quaternary - 2 or more tertiary structures bonded together.


Proteins

Structure- Keratin


Defence- Antibodies (white blood cells) Antigens, forge in bodies help to produce antibodies.


Enzymes- Build up or break down molecules.


Communication- Hormones


Transport- Protein channels found in cell membranes.

Polymers

Complex molecules made of monomers.

Monomers

Simple, small, sugar molecules. e.g. glucose

DNA Replication

Semi-conservative replication


In this process the original DNA unzips exposing the DNA bases. DNA nucleotides that are free floating in the nucleus, link in a complementary manner. With the help of the enzyme, DNA polymerase bonds the free floating nucleotides to form the two new strands. The two new double helix DNA structures have one new strand and one old strand.

DNA Hybridisation

Determining similar codes for DNA for closely related species. Heat separates the weak hydrogen bonds of the double strand structure to make them single stranded. Using a single strand from each species they are put together to compare for similarities. The more similarities the closer the species are related.

Mutation

Permanent change in the genetic code.

Mutagen

-Atomic radiation


-Temperature


-Chemicals


-Solar radiation

Types of Mutations in genes

Base Substitution


Base Insertion


Base Deletion

Base Substitution


A change in one base for another, which can lead to a change in the amino acid. Therefore altering the protein which can prohibit or limit it from doing it's job to its full potential. However, not all substitutions can change the amino acid as there are multiple base pairs for one amino acid meaning a base could be substituted for a base that also makes the same amino acid.

Base Insertion

The insertion of an extra base, changing all of the codon's after that singular base. Therefore, changing the entire sequence of the codons after that. Depending on the protein, once it is changed it may not function.

Base Deletion

Taking a base from a codon. Therefore affecting all codons following that one. Changing the amino acid and changing the protein.

Chromosome Changes

Translocation: Part moved


Duplication: Part doubled


Inversion: Segment flipped

Genetic Engineering/Genetic Manipultion

Taking genes from one organism and placing them in another.


Process: Locate a gene of interest by identifying the gene's position on the chromosome.


Using a specific enzymes to isolate the gene.


Sequencing the gene to determine its structure and genetic information.


Inserting the gene into cells of target organism.


Growing the transformed cells into a complete organism.

DNA Fingerprinting

The analysis of DNA from samples of body tissues or fluids in order to identify individuals.


1. DNA is replicated in the lab using PCR


2. Restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA into segments.


3. Segments are sorted by electrophoresis.


4. Probes are added.


5. X-ray is taken.

PCR (polymerase chain reaction)

The required DNA is added to a test tube and heated to about 95 degrees celsius to separate the two complementary strands. Primers are made to prevent the two strands simply rejoining.


The DNA replication enzyme, DNA polymerase, is added along with free nucleotides. Using a heat tolerant enzyme from bacteria it is possible to raise the temperature without destroying the enzyme.


The DNA is then cooled to allow binding of the free nucleotides to the exposed bases and the formation of complementary strands of DNA.

Electrophesis

The DNA is cut down into fragments with a restriction enzyme. The fragments are placed at one end of a flat, rectangular gel. Electrodes, positive and negative, are attached to the gel. The phosphate groups on the DNA molecule give it a negative charge, and consequently the fragments move to the positive electrode. Smaller segments of DNA move faster than longer ones and thus electrophoresis helps to separate DNA according to size and charge.

Recombinant DNA

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) is a form of artificial DNA that is created by combining two or more sequences that would not normally occur together.

Denature

destroy the characteristic properties of (a protein or other biological macromolecule) by heat, acidity, or other effect which disrupts its molecular conformation.

Restriction Enzyme


Restriction enzymes are DNA-cutting enzymes found in bacteria (and harvested from them for use). Because they cut within the molecule, they are often called restriction endonucleases.


A restriction enzyme recognizes and cuts DNA only at a particular sequence of nucleotides. For example, the bacterium Hemophilus aegypticus produces an enzyme named HaeIII that cuts DNA wherever it encounters the sequence

Inhibitor

An inhibitor prevents the binding of the substrate in the active site temporarily or permanently.

Role of mRNA in eukaryotic cell

Copies the base sequence from the DNA and takes this copy to the ribosomes to be translated by tRNA.

Role of tRNA in eukaryotic cell

Translates the genetic code from mRNA and collects amino acids that correspond to this code.

Substrate

the substrate bonds with the enzyme active site

Semi-conservative

Replication of a nucleic acid where one strand of the double helical structure if from the parent molecule and one is new.

Difference between DNA, genes and chromosomes.

Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of Eukaryotic cells. DNA is found as a double helix molecules on these chromosomes and there are many genes on a DNA molecule. Genes are the genetic code of an organism and include the specific base sequences.

Nucleotide structure

Sugar--phosphate


|


base

Cloning

Process of cloning genes:


- Remove plasmid from bacteria and extract DNA from cell


-insert gene into plasmid (recombinant DNA)


-Plasmid is placed back into bacteria


-Bacteria divides quickly providing multiple copes.


-Gene is removed from plasmid

DNA Sequencing

The process of determining the exact order and type of nucleotides in the DNA segments. The process involves the use of restriction enzymes to cut DNA into sections that can be analysed for their A,T,G and C sequences by machines.

Polysaccharide

Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate molecules composed of long chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages.