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156 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Biome
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One of world's major communities, classified by predominant vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that environment.
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adhesion
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clinging of 1 substance to another
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cohesion
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when 1 substance clings to itself
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structural formula
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represents both atoms & bonding
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molecular formula
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Indicates the proportion of atoms in a molecule
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cation
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A positive ion
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Anion
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A negative ion
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Potential energy
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Energy stored by matter as a result of its location or spacial arrangement.
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Hydroxide ion
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OH- = basic, accepts hydrogen ions
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Hydrogen ion
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acid
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buffer
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Substnaces that minimize changes in concentration of H+ and OH-
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molarity
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Number of moles of solute per liter of solution
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Enantiomer
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Molecules that are mirror images of one another
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Hydroxyl group
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-OH, alcohols
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Carbonyl group
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=O on end of molecule its an aldehyde, in middle of molecule ketone
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Carboxyl group
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-COOH carboxylic acids, it ionizes
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Amino group
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-NH2, amines
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Sulfhydryl group
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-SH, thiols
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Phosphate group
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-PO4, organic phosphates
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condensation reaction, dehydration reaction
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H20 molecule removed between 2 monomers, this combines 2 monomers
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hydrolysis
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Polymers disassembled to monomers when bonds between monomers broken by addition of water molecule
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glycosidic linkage
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Covalent bond formed between 2 monosaccharides by dehydration reaction
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glycogen
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A polymer of glucose that is like amylopectin but more extensively branched.
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triacylglycerol
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A fat made of 3 fatty acids joined to a glycerol molecule
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steroid
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4 fused rings, a lipid
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Peptide bond
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Covalent bond between amino acids, the carboxyl group of one is adjacent ot amino group of another, enzymes joins amino acids
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disulfide bridges
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strong, covalent bonds form where 2 cystein monomers (a acids w/ sulfhydryl groups) brought together by folding of the protein
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pyrimidine
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1 fused ring: cytosine, thymine, uracil
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purine
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2 fused rings: adenine, guanine
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catabolic pathways
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Degradative processes--> release of energy by breaking down molecules
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Anabolic pathways
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Consumer Energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
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first law of thermodynamics
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Energy can be transferred and transformed but can't be created or destroyed.
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second law of thermodynamics
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Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy (disorder or randomness) of the universe
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exergonic reaction
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Proceeds with a net release of free energy
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endergonic reaction
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absorbs free energy from its surroundings
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energy coupling
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Use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one
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Cofactors
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An enzyme's nonprotein helpers for catalytic activity, may bind w/ active site or may bind reversibly with the substrate
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Coenzyme
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A cofactor thats an organic molecule
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Competitive Inhibitors
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Reduce productivity of enzymes by blocking substrate from entering active sites, inhibition is reversible
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Noncompetitive inhibitors
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Don't directly compete w/ substrate at active site, they bind to another part of the enzyme, changing active site shape
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allosteric site
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A specific receptor site on some part of enzyme molecule remote from the active site.
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cooperativity
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One substrate molecule primes an enzyme to accept additional substrate molecules
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light microscopes
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Visible light passed thru specimen & glass lenses, light refracted
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electron microscope
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focuses electrons through specimen (must be dead). Transmission electron micro used to study internal ultrastructure of cells
Scanning electron microscopeshows depth of field, topographic. |
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cell fractionation
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Takes cells apart, separating major organelles so individual functions can be studied.
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nucleoid
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area for genetic material in a prokaryotic cell
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nuclear lamina
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lining of nuclear side of envelope, netlike array of protein filaments maintaining shape of nucleus
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glycoprotein
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a type of secretory protein, proteins covalently bonded to carbs
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peroxisom
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Metabolic Compartment that transfers hydrogens from substrates to oxygen producing hydrogen peroxide
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microtubules
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made of tubulin, maintains cell shape, improves cell motility (cilia or flagella), chromosome mvmnt, organelle mvmnt
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microfilaments
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actin, cell shape, changes in cell shape, muscle contraction, cytoplasmic streaming, cell motility (pseudopodia), cell division
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intermediate filaments
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proteins supercoiled into cables, cell shape, anchoraged of nucleus, formation of nuclear lamina
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centrosome
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region near nucleus, that microtubules grow out of
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centrioles
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in animal cell there are a pair of these, made of 9 sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring, when cell divides, centrioles replicate
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basal body
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microtubule assembly of cilium or flagellum anchored in cell by basal body, structurally identical to centriole
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Dynein
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A motor molecule that makes up the arms in cilia and flagella, a very large protein
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Actin
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A globular protein-makes microfilaments
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myosin
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in microfilaments
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middle lamella
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thin layer rich in pectins, glues cells together
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primary cell wall
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young plant cell first secretes a thin & inflexible wall
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secondary cell wall
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between plasma membrane & primary wall, often deposited in several laminated layers has strong & durable matrix
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ECM
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in animal cells, made of glycoproteins (collagen), embeeded in network woven from proteoglycans
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fibronectins
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Some cells attach to ECM by other types of glycoproteins
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Desmosomes
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Anchoring junctions, fasten cells together into epithelial sheets (in animals)
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Gap junctions
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Communicating junctions, provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
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Tight junctions
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Form continuous belts around the cell, membranes of neighboring cells fused at a tight junction
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sodium potassium pump
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pushes 3 Sodium ions out of cell, and brings 2 potassium ions in with the use of ATP
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turbid
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very firm, healthy for a plant cell, when its in a hypotonic solution
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flaccid
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when a plant cell is limp, happens if surroundings are isotonic
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plasmolysis
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a plant cell in hypertonic environment, plant cell will lose water to its surroundings & shrink
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electrogenic pump
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a transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane
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cotransport
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when an ATP-powered pump that transports a solute can indirectly drive the active transport of several other solutes
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ligands
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extracellular substances that bind to receptors
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glycolysis
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glucose enters, 2 3 carbon pyruvates are final product, NAD+ is reduced, 2 ATP consumed, 4 ATP created, occurs in cytoplasm, ATP made is through substrate-level phosphorylation,
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substrate-level phosphorylation
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occurs in Krebs and glycolysis where an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate to ADP,
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What happens when pyruvate enters mitochondrion
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carbon dioxide is removed, NAD+ is reduced, coenzyme A attaches to molecule
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Krebs cycle
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Acetyl coA enters cycle, fixes to oxaloacetate, the CoA comes off, 2 carbon dioxide molecules are removed, NAD+ is reduced, ADP is substrate level phosphorylated, FAD is reduced to FADH2
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cytochrome
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most of remaining e- carriers betweeen Q and oxygen are these proteins, their prosthetic group has 4 organic rings surrounding an iron atom
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electron transport chain
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electrons deposited at top of chain by NADH and FADH2 , which they fall down due to increasing electronegativities, at bottom of chain is oxygen which accepts the electrons and is reduced to water
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oxidative phosphorylation
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WHen electrons go do down electron transport chain, then combine w/ hydrogen ions & molecular oxygen to form water, energy released at chain is stored in a form mitochondria can use to make ATP
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Fermentation
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after glycolysis the pyruvate has carbon dioxide removed, and then is reduced by NADH, creates ethanol
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lactic acid
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After glycolysis the pyruvate is reduced by NADH, creates lactate
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mespohyll
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tissue in enterior of leaf, where most chloroplasts are found
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chlorophyll a
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blue-green purple, main pigment
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photosystems
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chlorophyll organized w/ proteins & other organic molecules in thylakoid membrane
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reaction center
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where the first light-driven chemical reaction of photosynthesis occurs
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primary electron acceptor
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a specialized molecule which captures the excited electron from the primary electron acceptor
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reaction center chlorohpyll
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the chlorophyll which becomes excited & donates its electron to the primary electron acceptor
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noncyclic electron flow
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electron from photosystem II goes down electron transport chain to photosystem I (electron replaced by split water molecule), as electron goes down chain, it powers energy for chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP, electron fills hole in photosystem I, the primary electron acceptor of photosystem I passes e to second electron transport chain which then reduces NADP+
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cyclic electron flow
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doesn't use photosystem II, electrons accepted by primary acceptor go down electron transport chain, replaces hole in phososystem on its own, produces energy for chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP, no production of NADPH, no release of oxygen, used to help cell produce enough ATP for Calvin cycle
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Calvin cycle
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carbon dioxide added to rubisco, then ATP adds Pi, NADPH is oxidized, a G3P molecule leaves cycle (a sugar which makes glucose), then ATP adds more Pi, and then the cycle begins again
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photorespiration, C3 plants
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when oxygen is accepted to Calvin cycle instead of carbon dioxide, mitochondria & peroxisomes break 2C molecule to CO2, it generates no ATP, produces no food
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C4 plants
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preface Calvin cycle w/ alternate mode of carbon fixation that forms 4 C compound as its first product, important in sugar cane, corn
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bundle-sheath cells
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tightly packed sheaths around veins of leaf, calvin cycle occurs in here
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mesophyll cells
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between bundle sheath and leaf surface, here CO2 is added to organic compounds by PEP carboxylase
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CAM plants
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mesophyll cells of these plants store organic acid they make during night in vacuoles until morning when stomata close, during day CO2 is released from organic acids made during night to become incorporated into sugar in chloroplasts.
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local regulator
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a substance that influences cells in vicinity
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hormone
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signaling at greater distances
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G-protein linked receptor
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a plasma-membrane receptor that works w/ help of G protein, when signal molecule binds to G-protein linked receptor it binds & activates G protein by replacing GDP with GTP, which then binds & activates the enzyme, then G protein catalyzes hydrolysis of its GTP & dissociates from enzyme
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tyrosine kinase
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an enzyme that catalyzes transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to amino acid tyrosine on substrate protein
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tyrosine-kinase receptors
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Membrane receptors that attach phosphates to protein tyrosines, when signal molecules attach to their binding sites, 2 polypeptides aggregate, using phosphate groups from ATP,the tyrosine kinase region of each polypeptide phosphorylates tyrosines on other polypeptide, this activates proteins which initiate signal-transduction pathways
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protein kinase
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an enzyme that transfers phsophate groups from ATP to protein
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protein phosphatases
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enzymes that remove phosphate groups from proteins
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second messengers
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Small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecules or ions
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adenylyl cyclase
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an enzyme built into the plasma membrane
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cAMP as a second messenger
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a signal molecule attaches to a receptor, which activates a G protein which activates adenylyl cyclase, which catalyzes conversion of ATP to cAMP, the cAMP activates another protein which is most often protein kinase A
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cytokinesis
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division of cytoplasm
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mitotic phase
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mitosis & cytokinesis, shortest part of cell cycle
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interphase
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divided into 3 parts, it is the longest part of cell cycle
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G1 phase
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cell grows, copies chromosomes
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G2
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grows more as it completes preparations for cell division
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kinetochore
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structure of proteins & chromosomal DNA at centromere
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checkpoint
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time in cell cycle where stop & go-ahead signals regulate the cycle
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G0 phase
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if cell doesn't get a go-ahead signal at G1 checkpoint it will exit cycle, enter nondividing G0 phase
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cyclin
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Kinases must be attached to a cyclin in order to be active
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MPF
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cyclin-Cdk complex that triggers cell's passage past G2 checkpoint into M phase, when cyclins that accumulate during G2 associate with Cdk molecules the MPF complex initiates mitosis
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growth factor
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a protein released by certain body cells that stimulates other cells to divide
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metastasis
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spread of cancer cells beyond original site
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sporohphyte
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multicellular diploid stage in plants and some algae
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spores
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meiosis in sporophyte produces haploid cells called spores
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gametophyte
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a spore divides mitotically to generate a multicellular haploid stage called the gametophyte
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synapsis
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homologous chromosomes join along their length, forming tetrads
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chiasmata
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x-shaped regions which represent a crossing of nonsister chromatids, which are 2 chromatids belonging to separate but homologous chromosomes
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character
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a heritable feature
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trait
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variant for a character
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alleles
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alternative versions of a gene
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codominance
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where both alleles are separately manifest in the phenotype
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pleiotropy
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The ability of a gene to affect an oganism in many ways
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epistasis
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where a gene at one locus alter the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus
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polygenic inheritence
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an additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character
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multifactorial
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where many factors collectively influence phenotype
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cystic fibrosis
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affects chloride ion transport, recessive trait, people are carriers
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Tay-Sachs disease
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lethal disorder inherited as recessive allele, caused by dysfunctional enzyme that fails to break down brain lipids
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sickle-cell disease
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commonly affects blacks, heterozygous individuals have sickle-cell trait
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cytological map
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locate genes w/ respect to chromosomal features
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linkage map
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genetic map based on recombination frequencies
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Duchenne musclular dystrophy & hemophilia
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sex-linked disorder
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Barr body
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inactive x in each cell of a female
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nondisjunction
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members of a homologous chromosome don't move apart properly during meiosis I
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aneuploidy
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abnormal chromosome number
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polyploidy
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more then 2 complete chromosome sets
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translocation
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when a fragments to joins a nonhomologous chromosome
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Down syndrome
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aneuploid condition
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fragile x syndrome
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mental retardation due to physical appearance of abnormal X chromosome
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primer
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original preexisting chain, made by primase which joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer, DNA polymerase later replaces RNA nucleotides of primers w/ DNA versions
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helicase
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enzyme that untwists double helix at replication fork
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single strand binding protein
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holds unpaired DNA strands apart as they serve as templates for synthesis of complementary strnads
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mismatch repair
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fixes mistakes made while DNA is copied
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nuclease
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DNA cutting enzyme
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excision repair
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where enzymes excise damaged region of DNA & replace it w/ normal DNA segment
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telomerase
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enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres
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telomeres
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special nucleotide sequences which don't contain genes, just repetition of a short nucleotide sequence
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point mutation
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chemical changes in one or a few base pairs in a single gene
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frameshift mutation
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when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted isn't multiple of 3
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missense mutation
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altered codon still codes for amino acid and makes sense
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nonsense mutation
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change in amino acid codon to a stop signal-->lethal
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