Biology Study Final

Front 1

Substances that dissolve in water are called:

Back 1

hydrophilic "water loving"

Front 2

Substances that lack charged poles, nonpolar covalent substances do not dissolve in water and are called:

Back 2

hydrophobic "water fearing"

Front 3

True or false, water has a high heat capacity?

Back 3

True

Front 4

T or F, ice is more dense than water

Back 4

True

Front 5

True or false water has strong cohesion and high surface tension:

What intermolecular force causes this?

Give an animal example

Back 5

True: Cohesion, or attraction between like substances, occurs in water because of the hydrogen bonding between water molecules.

Water bugs exerts less surface tension than what is on the water. That is why they can walk

Front 6

True or false...water adheres to other molecules?

Back 6

True.

Front 7

In water, what is the difference between cohesion and adhesion?

Back 7

Cohesion, or the attraction between like substances, occurs in water because of the hydrogen bonding between water molecules.

Adhesion, is the attraction of unlike substances.

Front 8

What is capillary action?

Back 8

water rises up the tubing or creeping through the paper. An example is in organic chemistry during TLC (Thin Layer Chromatography)

Front 9

What are polymers?

Back 9

molecules that consists of a single unit (monomer) repated many times

Front 10

What is a monomer?

Back 10

A single molecule unit.

Front 11

True or false, carbohydrates are made from sugar molecules?

Back 11

True

Front 12

What it the simplest kind of carbohydrate? define it and give examples of it

Back 12

it is the simplest kind of carbo. It consists of a single sugar molecule.

Examples, are fructose or glucose

Front 13

Sugar molecules have the formula:

Back 13

(CH2)n, where n is any number from 3 to 8

Front 14

What is this?

Back 14

Alpha-Glucose

Front 15

What is this?

Back 15

Beta Glucose

Front 16

What is this?

Back 16

Fructose

Front 17

What two monosaccharides make this molecule? what is it? What is this commonly known as?

Back 17

glucose + fructose = sucrose
Table Sugar

Front 18

What is this? And how is it made?

Back 18

Starch. It is a polymer of alpha-glucose molecules. It is the principle ENERGY STORAGE molecule in plant cells.

Front 19

WHat is starch?

Back 19

a polymer of alpha-glucose molecules. It is the principla energy storage molecule in PLANTS

Front 20

Def. glycogen?

Back 20

is a polymer of alpha glucose.

It differs from starch by its patter of polymer branching. It is a major storage molecule in ANIMAL Cells.

Front 21

def cellulose?

Back 21

is a polymer of Beta-glucose.

It serves as a STRUCTURAL molecule i th weall of plant cells and is the major component of wood.

Front 22

def chitin

Back 22

is a polymer similar to cellulose, but each Beta-glucose molecule has a NITROGEN containing group attached to the ring.

Chitin serves as a STRUCTURAL mol. in the walls of FUNGUS cells and in the exoskeltons of INSECTS, other ARTHROPODS, AND MOLLUSKS.

Front 23

What type of glucose is only for humans? And what type of glucose is only specialiezed organisms like the bacteria and protozoa in the guts of termites?

Back 23

Alpha-Glucose for Humans/Animals

Beta-Glucose for specialized organisms

Front 24

What three groups are carbohydrates classified in?

Back 24

1) monosaccharides
2) Dissaccharides
3) Polysaccharides

Front 25

What class of substances are insoluble in water but are soluble in nonpolar substances?

Back 25

Lipids

Front 26

What are the three major groups of Lipids?

Back 26

1) Triglycerides
2) Phospholipid
3) Steroids

Front 27

Fats, oils and waxes are in what group?

Back 27

Triglycerides

Front 28

What is this and what does each row represent (top down)?

Back 28

A triglyceride
Top = saturated fatty acid
Middle = monosaturated fatty ac
Bottom = polyunsaturated fatty acid

Front 29

How are tryglycerides made?

Back 29

Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids

Front 30

What are fatty acids and why are they called that way?

Back 30

Fatty acids are a carboxyl group (-COOH) , the acid part.

Fatty = from how long the carbon chain is on the carboxyl group.

Front 31

When the fatty acid on the triglyceride is all covalently bonded and has no double bonds it is said to be a

Back 31

saturated fatty acid

Front 32

A fatty acid that has one double covealent bond in a triglyceride it is a

Back 32

monosaturated fatty acid

Front 33

When a fatty acid has two or more double bonds it is said to be

Back 33

polyunsaturated

Front 34

What is a phospholipid?

Back 34

It is just like a triglyceride except that one fatty acid is replaced with a phosphate group (-PO3^-2)

Front 35

What is this a structure of? And why are they labled hydrophbic and hydrophilic?

Back 35

phospholipid

The hydrophilic is the head because it is polar, which means this side will point towards water

hydrophobic becase the fatty acid tails are non-polar and don't like water. they point in the towards the cell.

Front 36

What is an amphipathic molecule and what is an example of one?

Back 36

def: the moecule has both polar (hydrophilic) and non-polar (hydrophobic) regions.

Example: phospholipid

Front 37

How are phospholipids usually found? What do they usually form?

Back 37

They are often found oriented in sandwichlike formations with the hydrophobic tails grouped together on the inside of the sandwich and the hydrophiic heads oriente toward the outside and facing an aquesous environment.

Usually provide the strutural foundatoin of CELL MEMBRANES

Front 38

What is this general structure represent?

Back 38

a steroid which is one of the groups of lipids.

Front 39

How are steroids often characterized?

Back 39

charatcterized by a backbone of four linked carbon rings.

Front 40

What are examples of staroids?

Back 40

cholesterol
certain hormones (ie. testosterone and estrogen)

Front 41

WHat are the four classes of organic molecules?

Back 41

1) carbohydrates
2) Lipids
3) Proteins
4) Nucleic Acids

Front 42

What are the five main groupings of proteins, categorized according to their functions?

Back 42

1) Strcutural Porteins
2) Storage Proteins
3) Transport Proteins
4) Defense Proteins
5) Enzymes

Front 43

How are all groupings of proteins similar?

Back 43

All proteins are polymers of amino acids, that is, they consist of a chain of amino acids covalently bonded.

Front 44

What are the bonds between amino acids called? And what is a chain of them called?

Back 44

peptide bonds
A chain of peptide bonds is a polypeptide or peptide.

Front 45

How then do proteins differ from one another?

Back 45

they differ by the number and arragnement of the twenty different amino acids.

Front 46

What is an amino acid consist of?

Back 46

central carbon bonded to an amino grop (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a hydrogen atom

Front 47

What is this a strcutre of?

Back 47

THe general structure of an amino acid

Front 48

What are the four levels that describe a protein?

Back 48

Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Quaternary

Front 49

What does the primary structure of a protein mean?

Back 49

describes the order of amino acids.

Front 50

def secondary structure

What does the binding produce?

Back 50

is a three-dimensional shape that results from hydrogen bonding between the amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids.

The bonding produces:
1) a spiral (Alpha Helix) or
2) Folded Plan (Beta Sheets

Front 51

def tertiary structure

Back 51

includes additional three-dimensional shapng and often dominates the structure of GLOBULAR PROTEINS.

Front 52

What intermolecular forces contribute towards the tertiary structure?

Back 52

- Hydrogen bonding between R groups of amino acids
- IONIC BONDING: between R groups of amino acids
- The HYDROPHOBIC EFFECT that occurs when hydrophobic R groups move toward the center of the protein = globular
- DISULFIDE BONDS are formed when the sulfur atom in the amino acid cysteine bonds to the sulfr atom in another cystein = DISULFIDE BRIDGE

Front 53

define quaternary protein structure.

What inter molecular forces contribute to its stucture?

What is an example?

Back 53

describes a protein that is assembled from two or more separate peptide chains.

Same forces that define the tertiary structure also effect the quaternary structure.

Hemoglobin

Front 54

What is a nucleic acid?

Back 54

THe term nucleic acid is the overall name for DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids where named for their initial discovery within the nucleus, and for the presence of phosphate groups.

Front 55

Nucleus + Phosphate group =

Back 55

Basic term for nucleic acid

Front 56

Where is genetic information stored?
How is the genetic passed along?

Back 56

deoxyribnucleic acids DNA

DNA passes its genetic information to ribonucleic acid (RNA) for directing various metabolic activities of the cell.

Front 57

DNA is a polymer of what?

Back 57

nucleotides

Front 58

What are nucleic acids made of?

Back 58

THey are lindear polymers (chains) of nucleotides?

Front 59

What comprises a nucleotide?

Back 59

THREE PARTS:
1) Nitrogen base
2) Five-carbon sugar called deoxyribose
3) Phosphate group

Front 60

WHat is this?

Back 60

a nucleotide

Front 61

Which nitrogen bases are bigger Pyrimidines or purines?

Back 61

Purines

Front 62

How can you remember Purines and Pyrimidines?

Back 62

Pure Ag (Gold)

CUT PY

Front 63

How doe purines and pyrimidines match up? And which one is stronger?

Back 63

A-T (Double Bonded)
G-C (stronger b/c Triple Bond)

Front 64

How do two strands of a DNA helix line up?

Back 64

Both of the strands are oriented in opposite directions.

FIRST STRAND: 5' -> 3'
2ND STRAND : 3' -> 5'

They begin with phosphate group attached to the FIFTH (5') carbon of the deoxyrbose and ends where the phosphate of the next nucelotide would attached, at the THIRD (3') carbon of the deoxyribose.

Front 65

How does RNA DIFFER FROM DNA?

Back 65

RNA
1) The sugar in the nucleotides that make an RNA molecule is ribose, NOT deoxyribose as it is in DNA

2) Uracil pairs with adenine instead of Thymine

3) RNA is usually single-stranded and does not form a double helix as it does in DNA

Front 66

Chemical reactions that occur in a biological system are ___

What does it include?

Back 66

Metabolism
Includes:
catabolism
synthesis/anabolism
energy transfer

Front 67

The breakdown of substances is called:

The formation of new products is

Back 67

1) catabolism ("canables like to break down humans")

2) synthesis/anabolism

Front 68

What are enzymes?

Back 68

They are globular proteins that act as catalysts for metabolic reactions.

Front 69

What are the characteristics of an enzyme?

Back 69

1) The substrate is the substance or substances upon which the enzyme acts

2) Substrate specific
3) The induced-fit model describes how enzymes work
4) AN enzymes is UNCHANGED as a result of a rxn.
5) EFFICIENCY is effect by TEMPERATURE and pH.

Front 70

Who is the substrate, amylase or amylose (starch)?

Back 70

amylose/starch is the substrate, and the enzyme amylase breaks starch down.

Front 71

T or F reactants are also termed substrates?

Back 71

True

Front 72

T or F, enzymes are proteins?

Back 72

True

Front 73

Is the active site on the enzyme or substrate?

Back 73

The enzyme

Front 74

What does the induced-fit model tell us?

Back 74

How enzymes work:
Interaction of the reactants (substrate) and the enzyme causes the enzyme to change shape.

- THe new position places the substrate molecules into a position favorable to their reaction.

- ONce the rxn takes place, the product is released

Front 75

What is the optimal temperature for enzymes?

At went temp. do enzymes find it unfavorable? what happens to them?

Back 75

The temperature of the human body 98.6 F / 37.5 C

Unfavorable at 104 F, enzymes begin to DENATURE

Front 76

What are cofactors?

Back 76

They are non-protein molecules that assist enzymes.

Front 77

What is a holoenzyme?

What is a apoenzyme

Back 77

holoenzyme = apoenzyme + cofactor

apoenzyme = enzymes that require a cofactor but do not have one bound

Front 78

What are coenzymes?

What is an example?

Back 78

are organic cofactors that usually function to donate or accept some component of a rxn, often electrons.

Some vitamins are coenzymes or components of coenzymes

Front 79

What are inorganic cofactors? give ex

Back 79

they are often metal ions, like Fe^2+

Front 80

The most common source of activation energy for metabolic reactions are

Back 80

ATP

Front 81

How does ATP supply energy to an rxn?

Back 81

is usually energy in the last bond that is delivered to the reaction.

Front 82

What happens to ATP in the process of giving up his energy?

Back 82

THe last phosphate bond is broken and the ATP molecule is converted to ADP (adenosine diphospate) and a phosphate group (indicated by Pi)

Front 83

How are new ATP molecules produced?

Back 83

ATP molecules are assembled by PHOSPHORYLATION when ADP combines with a phosphate group using energy obtained from some energy-rich molecule like glucose.

Front 84

What is ATP essentially?

Back 84

it is an RNA adenine Nucelotide with two additional phosphate groups.

Front 85

What happens in rxn 1 and 2?

1) ATP -> ADP + Pi

2) ADP + Pi -> ATP

Back 85

1) ATP supplies energy to system

2) ATP is reformed through phosphorylation.

Front 86

What are the four common general charactersitics of metabolism?

Back 86

1) Equilibrium
2) Enzymes
3) Cofactors
4) ATP

Front 87

What is regulated when enzymes are regulated?

Back 87

chemical rxns and how to start or stop reactions are often regulated through enzymes

Front 88

What are the four ways enzymes are regulated?

Back 88

1) Allosteric Enzymes/feeback inhibition
2) competitive inhibition
3) noncompetitor inhibitor
4) Cooperativity

Front 89

What are allosteric enzymes?

Back 89

THey have two binding sites--one active site for the substrate and one allosteric site for an allosteric effector.

Front 90

WHat is allostery?

Back 90

changing the shape and activity of an enzyme that results from molecule binding with a regulatory substance at a site other than the enzymatically active one.

Front 91

WHat is allosteric regulation?

Back 91

is the regulation of an enzyme or the protein by binding an effector molecule at the protein's allosteric site (that is, a site other than the protein's active site)

Front 92

T or false a protein has both active and allosteric sites (both are different sites)

Back 92

True

Front 93

What are the two binding sites for allosteric enzymes?

Back 93

1) an active site for the substrate
2) one an allosteric site for an allosteric effector.

Front 94

What is an effector?

Back 94

An effector is a molecule that binds to a protein/enzyme and thereby alters the activity of that protein.

Front 95

What are the two allosteric effectors and what do they do?

Back 95

1) allosteric activator = binds to an enzyme and induces the enzyme's ACTIVE FORM.

AKA enhances the protein's activity.

2) ALLOSTERIC INHIBITOR binds to the enzyme and induces the enzyme's INACTIVE FORM.

or decreases the protein's acivity

Front 96

What happens in FEEDBACK INHIBITION?

Back 96

An end product of a series of rxns acts as an allosteric inhibitor, shutting down one of the enzymes catalyzing the reaction series.

Front 97

What is competitive inhibition?

Back 97

a substance that mimics the substrate ingibits an enzyme by occuping the active site. The mimic displaces the substrate and prevents the enzyme from catalyzing the substrate.

Front 98

What is non competitor inhibitor?

Back 98

THis binds to an enzyme at locations other than an active or allosteric site. The inhibitor changes the shape of the enzyme which disables its enzymatic activity.

Front 99

What are some important locations on an enzyme?

Back 99

active sites and allosteric sites

Front 100

What happens in cooperatively? WHat is an example.

Back 100

an enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after one substrate molecule attaches to an active site.

"Let's cooperate and invite others to the party after the first shows up"

Example: Hemoglobin's binding capacity increases after the first oxygen binds to its binding site. Other oxygens are then invited to other sites.

Front 101

1) Protein is a polymer of what?

2) Nucleic Acid is a polymer of what?

3) Starch is a polymer of what?
4) glycogen is a polymer of what?
5) cellulose is a polymer of what?

Back 101

1) amino acids

2) nucleotides

3-5) all are made up of glucose monomers

Front 102

What are the characteristics of hydrophilic properties?

Back 102

1) polar molecules
2) molecules soluble in water
3) molecules that readily ionize in water
4) the hydroxyl group (OH)

Front 103

What do plants convert into to make?

Back 103

Plants use photosynthesis process and use CO2 and water to make carbohydrates

Front 104

Maltose and sucrose are examples of what?

Back 104

disaccharides

Front 105

How are dissacharides made and what is lossed?

Back 105

Dehydradtion (Condesation) synthesis and water is lost.

Front 106

Glycogen and starch are examples of what?

Back 106

Polysaccharides

Front 107

Which of the following serves at the structural role in plants?

A. Glycogen
B. Amylose (Starch)
C. Cellulose

Back 107

C. Cellulose

Front 108

True of false, glycogen, starch and cellulose are all soluble in water?

Back 108

False.

Front 109

Polymers are made through ->
Polymers are broken through ->

Back 109

dehydration
hydrolysis ( water + separation)

Front 110

T or False Glycogen and glycerole are lipids

Back 110

False

Glycogen is polysaccaharide carbohydrate

Gycerole is the backbone of lipids.

Front 111

What are the five lipids derivatives?

Back 111

1) Phospholipids
2) Waxes
3) Steroids
4) Carotenoids
5) Porphyrins

Front 112

What include steroids?

Back 112

cholesterol
sex hormones (testosterone and estrogen)
corticosteriods

Front 113

What are carotenoids and what are they a derivative of?

What are the two subgroups

Back 113

Derivative of Lipids.

carotenoids are compounds that are the PIGMENTS which produce red, yellow, orange and brown colors in plants and animals.

Subgroups:
1) carotenes
2) xanthophylls

Front 114

What are cartoenes?

Back 114

THINK ORANGE CARROTS AND SWEET POTATO TOTS

They come from:
Lipid -> carotenoids -> carotenes

THey are synthesized by PLANTS but cannot be made by ANIMALS.

Front 115

What are xanthophylls?

Back 115

Yellow pigment

THey come from:

Lipids -> Carotenoids -> xanthophylls

Contain oxygen atoms

Front 116

WHat is the main difference between carotenes and xanthopylls?

Back 116

Carotenes = orange color, purely hydrocarbons with no oxygen

xanthophylls: yellow pigment, contain oxygen atoms

Front 117

Proteins can be classified on the bases of structure. There are classes of protein structure. List them all.

Back 117

1) simple proteins =
2) albumins and globulins
3) scleroproteins
4) conjugated proteins
5) lipoproteins
6) mucoproteins
7) chromoproteins
8) metalloproteinss
9) nucleoproteins.

Front 118

simple proteins are

Back 118

composed entirely of amino acids

Front 119

albumins and globulins are

Back 119

proteins primarily globular in nature. They are the functional proteins that act as carriers or enzymes.

Front 120

scleroproteins are....

what is an example

Back 120

these are fibrous in nature and act as structural proteins. Collage is a scleroprotein.

Front 121

conjugated proteins are ...

Back 121

these contain a simple protein portion, plus at least one nonprotein fraction.

Front 122

llipoproteins are...

Back 122

protein bound to a LIPID

Front 123

mucoproteins are...

Back 123

protein bound to CARBO.

Front 124

chromoproteins are...

Back 124

protein bound to pigmented molecules

Front 125

metalloproteins ...

Back 125

protein complexed around a METAL IONS

Front 126

nuceloproteins are...

Back 126

protein containing histone or protamine (nuclear protein) bound to NUCLEIC ACIDS

Front 127

What are the 5 general functions of proteins?

Back 127

1) Hormones
2) Enzymes
3) Structural proteins
4) Transport proteins
5) Antibodies

Front 128

What are hormones?/

Back 128

They are proteins that function as chemical messnger

Front 129

What is an example of a transport protein?

Back 129

Hemoglobin

Front 130

WHat is an example of a structural protein both extra and intra cellular?

Back 130

extracellular: collagen in cartilage, bone and tendons

intracelullar: proteins in cell membranes.

Front 131

Antibodies are what?

Back 131

They are proteins that bind to foreign particles (antigens), including disease-causing organisms, that have entered the body.

Front 132

Antigens are what?

Back 132

foreign particles that entered the body.

Front 133

Are all of the following about enzymes true?

1) Lower activation energy of a rxn
2) increase the rate of rxn
3) Do not effect the overall Delta G of the rxn
4) Are not changed or consumed in the course of the rxn

Back 133

True

Front 134

True or false most enzymes are reversible?

Back 134

True

Front 135

What factors effect the enzyme action and the reaction rate depend on?

Back 135

Temperature
pH
Concentration of Enzyme
Concentration of Substrate

Front 136

At what pH do enzymes work best? What are some exceptions?

Back 136

Work best at pH 7.2

Exceptions:
Pepsin works in stomach at highly acidic conditions (pH=2)

Pancreatic enzymes works in small intestine (pH=8.5)

Front 137

True or false: Every reaction in the body is regulated by enzymes

Back 137

TRUE!

Front 138

What enzyme hydrolyzes lactose to the monosaccharides glucose and galactose?

A. lactase
B. proteases
c. lipases

Back 138

lactase

Front 139

What enzyme degrade proteins to amino acids?

a. lactase
b. protease
c. lipase

Back 139

protease

Front 140

what enzyme hydrolyzes (break down) lipids to fatty acids and glycerol?

a. lactase
b. protease
c. lipase

Back 140

lipase

Front 141

True or false: Synthesis (dehydration) reactions can be catalyzed by the same enzymes as hydrolysis reactions, but the direction of the reaction is reversed.

Back 141

True

Front 142

What are prosthetic groups?

Back 142

cofactors which bind to the enzyme by strong covalent bonds

Front 143

What are cofactors?

Back 143

a nonprotein molecule that incorporate themselves on a enzyme so that they become active.

Front 144

WHat are the sub units nucleic acids?

Back 144

nucleotides

Front 145

Nuncleic acids are polymers of what?

Back 145

nucleotides

Front 146

What are the four points to The Cell Theory?

Back 146

1) All living things are composed of cells
2) THe cell is the basic functional unit of life
3) Cells arise only from pre-existing cels
4) Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA. THis genetic material is passed from parent cell to daughter cell.

Front 147

What are the three microscopy techniques for studying cells? is the organism alive or dead?

Back 147

1) Compound Light Scope (cell is dead). Total magnification
2) Phase contrast microscopy (specimen is alive).
3) electron microscopy (specimen is dead). thousand fold magnification.

Front 148

What are the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes in cell biology? First give an example of both, as a reference point to compare.

Compare the:
Cell Wall
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Membrane bound organelles

Back 148

Prokaryotes: Bacteria
Eukaryotes: Protists, fungi, plants, animals

Cell Wall:
-PROK = Yes;
- EUK =No, protists, animals Yes: fungi and plants

Nucleus:
-PROK: No All
-EUK: Yes All

Ribosomes:
-PROK: subunits = 30S and 50S
-EUK: subunits = 40S and 60S

Membrane bound Organelles
-PRO = No all
-EUK = Yes all

Front 149

The fluid matrix in inside the cel is called?

Back 149

cytosol

Front 150

What two things can move freely about the lipid bilayer/plasma membrane?

Back 150

lipids and most proteins

Front 151

What are the three common proteins found in the phospholipid bi layer?

Back 151

peripheral proteins
integral proteins
transmembrane proteins

Front 152

Proteins may attach loosely to the inner or outer surface of the membrane are called:

peripheral proteins
integral proteins
transmembrane proteins

Back 152

peripheral proteins

Front 153

Proteins that extend into the membrane are called:

peripheral proteins
integral proteins
transmembrane proteins

Back 153

integral proteins

Front 154

Integral proteins that span across the membrane, appearing at both surfaces are called:

peripheral proteins
integral proteins
transmembrane proteins

Back 154

transmembrane proteins

Front 155

proteins that extend out of the surface are called

peripheral proteins
integral proteins
transmembrane proteins

Back 155

peripheral proteins

Front 156

T or F. both peripheral and integral proteins are amphipathic?

Back 156

False only integral proteins.

Front 157

The nature of scattered proteins within a flexible matrix of phospholipid molecules describes the ...

Back 157

fluid mosaic model

Front 158

What molecules can freely pass through the phospholipid membrane?

Back 158

only small,
-uncharged
- polar molecules (ie H20 and CO2)
- hydrophobic molecules (nonpolar molecules like O2)

Front 159

What molecules can NOT freely pass through the membrane?

Back 159

Large polar molecules (ie glucose)
- All ions are impermeable

Front 160

What do carrier proteins do?

Back 160

They assist some larger charged molecules across the membrane

Front 161

What are the top 6 functions proteins play in the membrane?

Back 161

1) Channel proteins
2) Transport Proteins
3) Recognition Proteins
4) Adhesion Proteins
5) Receptor proteins
6) electron transfer proteins

Front 162

Channel proteins do what?

Back 162

provide passageways through the membrane for certain hydrophilic (water-soluble) substances such as polar and charged molecules.

Front 163

Transport Proteins do what?

Back 163

spend energy (ATP) to transfer materials across the membrane. When energy is used for this purpose, the materials are siad to be actively trasnported, adn the process is called active transport.

Front 164

What do Recognition proteins do?

Back 164

distingish the identify of neighboring cells. These proteins are called GLYCOPROTEINS b/c they have short polysaccharide chains (oligosaccharides) attached. The ologosaccharides part of the glycoprotein protrudes from the surfacd of the membrane like an entenna.

Front 165

What to Adhesion proteins do?

Back 165

Attach cells to neighboring cells or provide anchors for the internal filaments and tubules tha give stability to the cell

Front 166

What do receptor proteins do?

Back 166

provide binding sites for hormones or other trigger molecules. IN response to the hormone or trigger molecule, a specific ell response is activated.

Front 167

What do electron transfer proteins do?

Back 167

are involved in transferring electrons from one molecule to another during chemical reactions.

Front 168

What do cholesterol molecules do in the phospholipid bilayer?

Back 168

they provie some rigidity to the plasma membranes of animal cells.

In plant cells, related substances (sterols) provide a similar function.

Front 169

What is glycocalyx and what does it do?

Back 169

It is a carbohydrate "coat" coverign the outer face of the plasma membrane. It consists of various oligosaccharides that are attached to membrane phospholipids (glycolipids) and proteins (glycoproteins or recognition proteins). THe glycocalyx provides makers for cell-cell recognition.

Front 170

What are the the three things that comprise the nucleus?

Back 170

Nuclear envelope (similar to the phospholipid bilayer)
- nucleolus
- chromatin

Front 171

What does the nucleus contain?

Back 171

DNA

Front 172

When a cell is not replicating what is DNA like?

Back 172

DNA is spred out in a threadlike matrix called CHROMATIN

Front 173

When a cell is about to divide DNA in the form of _____begins to condense into _______.

Back 173

chromatin, chromosomes

Front 174

What are chromosomes made up of?

Back 174

- Two long DNA molecules
- various histone (protein) molecules

Front 175

What are the purpose of histones in DNA?

Back 175

They serve to organize the lengthy DNA, coiling it into bundles called nucleosomes.

Front 176

WHat is the nucleolus?

Back 176

is a dense structure in the nucleus where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis occurs.

Front 177

Where in the cell is the site for separation?

Back 177

The nucleus

Front 178

What are ribosomes?

What is there function in the cytoplasm?

Back 178

Ribosomes subunits are manufactured in the nucleolus and consist of RNA molecules and proteins.

In the cytoplasm ribosomes assist in the assembly of amino acids into proteins.

Front 179

Where are free ribosomes and bound ribosomes found?

Back 179

free ribosomes = in cytoplams
bound ribo...= line the outer membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum

Front 180

What is the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and what is it's main function?

Back 180

is a network of membrane-enclosed spaces

Function: involved in the transport of materials throughout the cell...PARTICULARLY those materials destined to be secreted by the cell.

Front 181

What is the ER rough?

Back 181

It is surround by ribosomes.

Front 182

WHat makes proteins?

Back 182

Ribosomes

Front 183

Who else helps with protein synthesis?

Back 183

The Rough ER

Front 184

Smooth ER is repsonspsible for what? What is it responsbile for in the liver?

Back 184

the synthesis of lipids and hormones, especially in cells that produce these substances for export from the cell.

IN the liver the smooth ER is invovled for breakdown of toxins, drugs and toxic by-products from cellular reactions.

Front 185

What is the golgi apparatus responssible for?

Back 185

They function to modify and package proteins and lipids into VESICLES, small, spherically shaped sacs that bud from the outside surface of the Golgi apparatus.

Front 186

THe KKB relates the Golgi apparatus like UPS. WHat for?

Back 186

Well Like UPS the golgi apparatus receives vesicles and their contents from the smooth ER, modifies them, repackage them into vesicles, and distributes them to the cell surface for exocytosis.

Front 187

What are lysosomes and where to they originate from?

Back 187

The come from a Golgi apparatus that contain digestive enzymes

Front 188

What are peroxisomes?

Back 188

They are organelles that break down various substances. O2 combines with hydrogen to from toxic hydrogen peroxide, which in turn is converetd to H2O

THere are commonly found in the liver and kindeys and in photosynthesizing plant cells

Front 189

Where does the majority of the cells metabolic activity occur?

Back 189

THe cytoplasm

Front 190

What is the function of Chloroplasts?

Back 190

They carry out photosynthesis, the plant process of incorporating energy from sunlight into carbohydrates.

Front 191

What is the function of microtubules?

Back 191

THey are made of the protein tubulin and provide support and motility for cellular activities.

They are found in the spindle apparatus.

Front 192

What does the spindle apparatus do?

Back 192

guides the movement of chromosomes during cel division.

Front 193

Intermediate filaments provide support for what?

Back 193

maintaining the shape of the cell

Front 194

Microfilaments are made of what and involved in what?

Back 194

Made of actin and is involved in cell motility, mechanical support, maintains cell shape.

Front 195

What are centrioles?

Back 195

They are specialized microbule involved in spindle organization during cell division and are not bound by a membrane.

The region where they lie is CENTROSOMES

Front 196

How are Plant Cells Distinguished from Plant Cells?

Back 196

1) Presence of cell walls, chloroplasts, an central vacuoles IN PLANTS. NOT IN ANIMALS

2) presence of lysosomes and centrioles IN ANIMALS. NOT IN PLANTS

Front 197

SIMPLE DIFFUSION IS:

Back 197

the net movement of dissolved particles down their concentration gradients

High Conce -> Low Conc.

Passive Process

Front 198

OSMOSIS

Back 198

Is simple diffusion of water from a region of:

Lower Solute Conc. -> Higher Solute Conc.

Front 199

Water likes to move where during osmosis

Back 199

It likes going to more conentrated areas

Front 200

When the cytoplasm of a cell has a lower concentration than the extracellular medium what will happen?

Back 200

The cell is in Hypertonic solution.

Water will flow out of the cell to the more concetrated medium.

THis is called pasmolysis

Front 201

If the extracellular environment is less concentrated than the cytoplasm of the cell , the extracellular medium is said to be ______ and what will happen?

Back 201

hypotonic, the cell will burst (lyse)

Front 202

What are the three main types of transport?

Back 202

Passive diffusion:
- Down Gradient
- NO carrier
- No energy required

Faciliated Diffusion:
- Down Gradient
- Carrier
- No energy required

Active Transport:
- Against gradient
- carrier
- energy required

Front 203

WHat types of things are transported during active transport?

Back 203

small ions (Na+, K+, Cl-, H+)
amino acids
monosaccharides

...across the membranes

Front 204

How are things circulated in the cell (Intracellular circulation)?

Back 204

1) Brownian Movement
2) Cyclosis or streaming
3) Endoplasmic reticulum

Front 205

What is Brownian Movement?

Back 205

the movement of particles due to kinetic energy which spreads small suspended particles throughout the cytoplasm of the cell

Front 206

What is cyclosis or streaming?

Back 206

the circular motion of cytopasm around the cell trasnport molecules

Front 207

How is the movement of materials on a large, extracellular circulation, done through the body of an organism?

Back 207

1) Diffusion: If organisms cells close to the external environment. i.e transprot for food and oxygen from external environment. ANd even transport of materials between cells and interstitiaul fluid which batehs the cells

2) Circulatory System: If organisms cells are not close to external environment. vessels are used to move things around if the cells are too far from the external environment.

Front 208

How do prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in their organization of genetic material?

Back 208

Prokaryotes: genetic material is composed of a single circular molecule of DNA localized in a region of the cell called the nucleoid.

Eukaryotes: have highly coiled linear strands of DNA organized into chromosomes within a membrane-bound nucleus.

Front 209

How do prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in their site of cellular respiration?

Back 209

Prokaryotes: cellular resp. occurs directly at the cell membrane.

Eukaryotes: celular resp. occurs across the mitochondrial membrane and within the mitochondria itself.

Front 210

How do prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in their presence of membrane-bound organelles?

Back 210

Prokaryotes: don't have them

Eukaryotes: Have them

Front 211

What are the only Prokaryotes?

Back 211

Bacteria

Front 212

What kingdoms are the eukaryotes?

Back 212

Protists, Fungi, Plants, Animals

Front 213

Movement of solutes across a plams membrane from a region of igher solute conc. to a region of lower solute conc. with the aid of proteins is...

Back 213

Facilitated diffusion

Front 214

Movement of water across a membrane from a region of higher concentration to lower conc. of water is....

Back 214

Osmosis

Front 215

Movement of water out of a cell resulting in the colllapse of the plasma membrane

Back 215

plasmolysis

Front 216

Movement of urine through the urinary tract

Back 216

bulk flow

Front 217

Movement of solutes across a plasma membrane requiring the addition of energy...

Back 217

active transport

Front 218

Karyokinesis is ____________
Cytokinesis is _____________

Which comes first?

Back 218

1) nuclear division
2) cell division

Nuclear division comes first in Motisis

Front 219

Where does a cell spend most of its life?

Back 219

Interphase

Front 220

What happens during Interphase?

Back 220

Each chromosome is replicated so that during division , a complete copy of the genome can be distributed to both daughter cells.

Front 221

Before replication what does the genetic material look like and what is its name?

Back 221

Chromatin

Front 222

What is the difference between Chromatin and Chromatids?

Back 222

Chromatin: DNA Uncoiled.

Chromatid: DNA Coiled

Front 223

How many chromatids equal a chromosome?

Where do the two chromatids join at?

Back 223

two Chromatids = 1 Chromosome

THe CENTROMERE

Front 224

What are the four phases in Mitosis?

Back 224

PMAT

Front 225

What three activities happen in Prophase?

Back 225

First: the nucleoli disappear and the chromatin condenses into chromosomes ( or also termed single chromatid.

Front 226

True or False: Each Chromatid is composed of a complete, double-stranded molecule of DNA.

Back 226

True

Front 227

True or False the term "chromosome" may be used to refer to either the single chromatid OR the pair of chromatids attached at the centromere.

Back 227

TRUE

Front 228

What 3 steps happen in Prophase?

Back 228

First: THe nucleoli deisappear and the chromatin condenses into chromosomes.

Second: the nuclear envelope breaks down.

Third: The mitotic spindle is assembled

Front 229

How does the mitotic spindle begin to develop?

Back 229

Centromeres begin moving at opposite ends.
- As they move microtubules develope increasing in length by the addition of tubulin.
- Once on each side of the nucleus the microtubules connect to a specialiezed region on the centromere called the KINETOCHORE.
-Microtubules an begin tugging, moving the chromosomes back and forth.

Now we enter metaphase.

Front 230

How many centrioles are at the centrosome? Are they located outside or inside the cell?

Back 230

2 Centrioles per centrosome (kind of like the h-"ome" of centrioles.

Front 231

What key feature is characteristic of Interphase?

Back 231

The centrioles are still at the centrosome...waiting to be put in position.

Front 232

microtubules are made from ___
microfilaments are made from____

Back 232

micro-"tubules" = Tubulin
microfil-"A"-ments = A-ctin

Front 233

What roles do the microtubules and microfilaments do?

Back 233

microtubules: guides movement of chromosomes in cell division

microfilaments = when the shorten they act as a purse string to pull the plasma membrane into the center, dividing the cell into two daughter cells. The groove created by these purse strings is called CLEAVAGE FURROW.

Front 234

When does metaphase begin? Continue the process of what happens.

Back 234

Begins when chromosomes are distributed across the metaphase plate.

Ends when microtubules begin pulling the chromatids apart

Entering Anaphase

Front 235

T or False, once a chromosome is pulled apart, the chromatid that is separated from its sister is now called a chromosome?

Back 235

True

Front 236

What happens in Anaphase?

Begin...
Ends...

Back 236

Begins: after the chromosomes are separated into chromatids. The microtubules connected tot he chromatids (now chromosomes) shorten, pulling the chromosomes to opposite pulls.

End: at the end of this phase each pole has a complete set of chromosomes, the same number of chromosomes as the original cell.

Front 237

True or false: Since a cell consists of only one chromatid, each chromosome contains only a single copy of the DNA molecule after cell division

Back 237

True

Front 238

What happens in telophase?

Back 238

- Nuclear envelope develops, forming two nuclei
- Chromosomes (aka chromatid) disperse into chromatin (uncoiled DNA), and the nucleoli reappear.

Simultaniously Cytokenisis occurs, dividing the cytoplasm into two cells.
-

Front 239

What causes cleavage furrow during cytokinesis?

Back 239

the microfilaments, aka purse strings.

Front 240

What are the two major differences between cell division in animal cells and plant cells?

Back 240

1) Plants lack centrioles
2) Cytokinesis:
- in animal cells (CLEAVAGE FURROW) proceeds through production of Cleavage Furrow.

-In Plant cells (CELLS WALLS) can't cleavage furrow. Vesicles originating from Golgi bodies migrate to the plane between two newly forming nuclei. The vesicles fuse to form a cell plate = turns into plasma membranes for the two daughter cells

Front 241

TRUE OR FALSE: During interphase growth occurs in all three phases of G1, S, and G2

Back 241

True

Front 242

At which phase in Interphase marke the time during which teh second DNA molecule for each chromosome is synthesized?

Back 242

the S phase

Front 243

TDNA is replicated during what phase?

Propase
Telophase
Anaphase
Interphase

Back 243

Interphase

Front 244

What is the result of DNA replication?

Back 244

Each chromosome that appears at the beginning of the next mitotic division will appear as two sister chromatids.

Front 245

During what period of growth are materials for the next mitotic division are prepared?

Back 245

G2

Front 246

True are fallse. Centrosomes also replicate?

Back 246

True

Front 247

Where do centrosomes replicate?

Back 247

During Interphse (S)

Front 248

T or F: Microtubules only attach to the chromosomes during prophase?

Back 248

False. Microtubules are also attach to places around the cell to help pull things apart.

Front 249

For all organisms, what does haploid and diploid mean.

Back 249

Haploid = N = half the number of total chromosomes

Diploid = 2N = Full number of chromosomes.

Front 250

What types of cell go through meiosis?

Back 250

germ cells

Front 251

When two homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine this is called

Back 251

synapsis

Front 252

What does homologous chromosomes mean?

Back 252

chromosomes that code for the same traits, one inherited from each parent

Front 253

What is crossing over and where does it occur?

Back 253

Crossing over occurs between chromatids of homologous chromosomes and break at correspond ponts and exchange equivalent pices of DNA, one from the father and mother.

Note: crossing over cannot happen between sister chromoatids. It would be like exchanging information with yourself. That is why only homologous chromosomes can do it because they are from two different people.

Occurs at Prophase I of Meiosis

Front 254

What is a tetrad?/

Back 254

During Prophase I of meiosis each synaptic pair of homologous chromosomes contain four chromatids

Front 255

T or False. once crossing over occurs sister chromatids are no longer identical

Back 255

True

Front 256

What happens in Metaphase I in meiosis?

Back 256

Homolgous pairs (Tetrads) algin at the equatorial plate
- each pair attaches to a seperate spindle fiber by its kinetochore.

Front 257

What happens in Anaphase I of meiosis? And what is the process generally called in terms of genetics?

Back 257

- Homologous pairs (tetrads) are pulled to opposite poles
- called DISJUNCTION

Front 258

T OR F: The Meiosis I is exactly like Mitosis?

Back 258

False: Meiosis two is exactly like Mitosis.

Front 259

What is the one difference between Meiosis II and Mitosis?

Back 259

Mitosis: Chromosomes replicate
Meiosis II: Chromosomal replication does NOT occur, which is why each new cell ends up with a haploid number of chromosomes.

Front 260

Mitosis In Nutshell True or False:

2N -> 2N
- Occurs in all dividing cells
- Homologous chromosomes do NOT pair up
- Crossing over occurs

Back 260

False: Everything is true but crossing over. It does not occur in mitosis. Sister chromatids cannot cross over = no genetic variation

Front 261

Meiosis in a nutshell True or False:

- 2N -> 2N
- Occurs in sex cells only
- Homologous chromosomes pair up at metaphase plate forming tetrads
- Crossing Over can occur

Back 261

False: It goes from 2N -> N

Front 262

What are the different types of asexual reproduction:

Back 262

fission
budding
regeneration
parthanogenesis

Front 263

What type of reproduction to Prokaryotes
Animals
Plants

use

Back 263

Prokaryotes: ALL asexually
Animals: Most sexually, Asexual reproduction is more prevalent among invertebrates
Plants: All, both simple and complex, use sexual repro.

Front 264

If a cell has 46 chromosomes at the beginning of mitosis, then at anaphase there would be a total of...

23 chromatids
23 chromosomes
46 chromosomes
46 chromatids
92 chromosomes

Back 264

E. 92 Chromosomes

Front 265

If a cell has 46 chromosomes at the begginning of meiosis, then anaphase I there would be a total of...

23 chromatids
23 chromosomes
46 chromosomes
46 chromatids
92 chromosomes

Back 265

46 chromosomes

Front 266

True or false: All eukaryotic cells have centrioles?

Back 266

False, Most plants do not have centrioles

Front 267

What is fission?
Who normally goes through it?

Back 267

What: The DNA replicates and a new plasma membrane and cell wall grow inward along the midline of the cell,
-dividing it into two equally-sized cells with
- equal amounts of cytoplasm, - each containing a duplicate of the parent chromosome.

Who: Prokaryotes, one-celled organisms such as amoebae, paramecia, algae, bacteria

Front 268

What is Budding?
Who usually goes through it?

Back 268

What: the repication of nucleus followed by UNEQUAL cytokinesis.
- smaller than parent
- genetically identical
- grows to adult size

Who: Hydra and yeast

Front 269

What is regeneration?
WHo usually goes through it?

Back 269

What: is the growth of a lost or injured body part and occurs by mitosis.

Who: Lower animals like hydra and starfish
- Salamanders and tadpoles

Front 270

What is Parthanogenesis?
Who usually goes through it?

Back 270

What: is the development of an unfertilized egg into an adult organism.

Who: Bees and Ants
Male Bees = unfertilized eggs
Worker and Queen bees = fertilized eggs

Front 271

What does meiosis produce in plants?

Back 271

Spores.

Front 272

What are spores?

Back 272

Spores are haploid cells that divide by mitosis to become a multicellular haploid structure, the gametophyte.

Front 273

Back 273

Know that plants have different phases in their life. Sporophyte and gametophyte generations/phases

Front 274

In plants what phase of their life do they asexually reproduce?

Back 274

sporophyte generation: when they are a plant having roots etc.

Front 275

What is alternation of generations?

Back 275

which a diploid generation is succeeded by a haploid generation.

Front 276

Is the sporophyte generation diploid or haploid?

Which generation produces haploid spores?

Back 276

Diploid

sporophyte

Front 277

What do spores go through _____to produce _______.

Back 277

mitosis, gametophytes

Front 278

What two ways to plants asexually reproduce?

Back 278

1. Spore formation
2. Vegetative propigation

Front 279

What are the two types of vegetative propagation?

Back 279

1) Natural Vegetative Prop
2) Artificial Vege..

Front 280

WHat is vegetative propagation?

Back 280

undifferentiated tissues in plants, called meristems, provide a source of cells that can develop into an adult plant.

= no genetic variation
- rapid reproduction

Front 281

Certain types of plants can each go through natural propagation. And each have special propagation parts. What are those parts and give examples of each.

Back 281

Bulbs: Tulips and Daffodils
Tubers: Potato
Runners: Strawberries and lawn grasses
Rhizomes (stolons): ferns and iris plants

Front 282

Define each of these:
bulbs
tubers
runners
rhizomes

Back 282

bulbs: split into form several bulbs
Tubers: underground stems with buds, like the eyes of potatoes, that can develop into adult plants
Runners: are stems running above and along the ground, extending from the main stem
Rhizomes: are woody, underground systems. THey can develop new upgright stems as they do in ferns and iris plants

Front 283

WHat is artificial propagation?

Back 283

Humans way of making plants reproduce asexually.

Front 284

What are the male and female gonads called? What do they prod?

Back 284

Testes produce sperm and ovaries produce oocytes (eggs)

Front 285

What is the term for an organism that has both male and female gonads?

give examples

Back 285

hermaphrodites,

Hydra and earthworm

Front 286

What is the production of gametes for both male and female?

Back 286

spermatogenesis
oogenesis

Front 287

What are the cells called in spermatogenesis?
Diploid or haploid
goes through meiosis or mitosis
produce 4 or two sperm of equal size

Back 287

called spermatogonia
- diploid cells
- go through meisosis
- 4 haploid sperm of equal size are produuced

Front 288

THe head of the sperm consists of what?
The tail is what?

Back 288

Head consists almsot entirely of the nucleus which contains the paternal genome
- tail is flagellum

Front 289

During oogenesis the female sex sell goes through what?
How many cells go through this?
Is it a diploid or haploid cell?
What does this process produce and how much does it produce?

Back 289

1) goes through meiosis
2) Only 1 sex cell
3) Diploid
4) produces a single mature egg/ ovum

Front 290

Each meiotic division during oogenesis produces what?

Back 290

A polar body which is a small cell that contains little more than the nucleus.

Front 291

What does the mature ovum contain?

Back 291

cytoplasm, RNA, organelles, and nutrients

Front 292

What are the two types of fertilization?

Back 292

External and Internal
External: Fish and amphibians, sperm have flagellum, female produces a crap load of eggs to increase chances of fertilization

Internal Fertilization: Species that care for their young produce fewer eggs

Front 293

Besides sperm what else is produced in the testes? What does it regulate?

Back 293

the male hormone TESTOSTERONE. It regulates secondary male sex characteristics including facial and pubic hair and voice changes

Front 294

1) Where are the ovaries located?
2) Ovareis consists of thousands of what?

Back 294

1) The abdominal cavity, below the digestive system
2) follicles = a multi-layered sac of cells that contains, nourishes, and protects an immature ovum.

Front 295

What cells produce estrogen and where are these cells found?

Back 295

Ovaries -> follicle -> follicle cells -> estrogen

Front 296

Describe the path that an immature ovum takes each month.

Back 296

ovum (egg) -> released from the ovary into the abdominal cavity -> drawn to oviduct -> uterus

Front 297

This location is the site of fetal development:
A. fallopian tube
B. oviduct
C. uterus
D. Cervix

Back 297

C. Uterus

Front 298

where are the female sex hormones produced?
What are they?
How are they regulated?

Back 298

Ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone -> secretion is regulated by LH an FSH -> which is regulated by GnRH

Front 299

From the top down how are the two female sex hormones regulated

Back 299

1) GnRH regulates
2) LH and FSH who regulate
3) estrogen and progesterone

Front 300

What are estrogens?
What do they do/responsible for?
Who secretes them

Back 300

They are steroid hormones necessary for normal female maturation
- stimulate the development of the female reproductive tract
- contribute to secondary sexual characterstics
- stimulate sex drive
- responsible for thickening of the endometrium (uterine wall)

Secreted by:
ovarian follicles and corpus luteum

Front 301

What is progesterone?
What does it do?
Who secretes it?

Back 301

Progesterone is a steroid hormone
Function: stimulates the development and maintenance of the endometrial walls in preparation for implantation.

Secreted by:
Curpus leteum during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle

Front 302

How is the menstrual cycle split up?

Back 302

1) follicular phase
2) luteal phase
3) menstruation

Front 303

What are the three sites of hormonal secretions that play a role in the female reproductive cycle?

Back 303

ovaries
hypothalamus
anterior pituitary

Front 304

What happens in the follicular phase? What phase happens next?

Back 304

Anterior Pituitary Hormone releases -> FSH -> Follicle starts to grow -> follicle cells secrete -> estrogen ->Enter ovulation phase

Front 305

What happens during the ovulation phase?
WHat causes it?

What happens next?

Back 305

a mature ovarian follicle bursts ->releases an ovum

Caused: ovulation is caused by a surge in LH which is preceded, and in part caused, by a peak in estrogen levels

Luteal phase happens next

Front 306

What happens in the Luteal phase?

What happens next

Back 306

LH induces the ruptured follicle to develop into -> corpus luteum, wich secretes -> estrogen and progesterone.

Progesterone causes the glans of the endometrium to mature and produce secretions that prepare it for the implantation of the embryo. Progesterone and estrogen are essential for the maintenance of the endometrium

NExt phase is Menstruation

Front 307

What happens during menstruation if:
1) Not fertilized
2) Fertilized

Back 307

1) If the ovum is not fertilzed, the corpus leteum atrophies -> estrogen and progesterone levels drop -> endometrium lining sluffs off (blood) -> menstrual flow (menses)

2) If fertilization occurs -> the developing placenta produces hCG (guman chorionic gonadotropin) -> maintain corpus luteum -> thus, supply of estrogen and progesterone maintains uterus -> until placenta takes over production of these hormones

Front 308

In plants what has evolution leaned towards the dominant generation?

Back 308

diploid sporophyte generation

Front 309

How does the gametophyte generation produce gametes?

Back 309

through mitosis

Front 310

How is the sporophyte generation restord?

Back 310

by union of the male and female gametes at fertilization, restores the diploid sporophyte generation

Front 311

Which plant generation reproduces sexually and asexually?

Back 311

Gametophyte sexually (b/c they restore diploid sporophyte gen)

Sporophyte asexaully (b/c they restore haploid gametophyte generation)

Front 312

Which generation is dominant in :
Mosses
Ferns
Angiosperms

Back 312

Mosses: gametophyte is dom
Ferns: Sporophyte is dom
Angiosperms: Sporophyte gen is dominant

Front 313

If you see a woody plant (maple, rose etc) what stage is it in?

Back 313

sporophyte stage

Front 314

What is the reproductive structure for angiosperms?

Back 314

Flowers

Front 315

What is the male organ of the flower and what is the female organ?

Back 315

Stamen = male organ
Pistil = female organ

Front 316

What is the stamen an what does it consists of? And what does the anther produce

Back 316

The male reproductive organ of the flower. Consists of thin stalk-like FILAMENT with a terminal sac called the ANTHER.

The anther produces haploid spores which develop into pollen grains

Front 317

What is the pistil and what does it consist of? What do each of the three parts do?

Back 317

Pistil = female organ of the flower.

Three parts:
1) Stigma - sticky and catches pollen
2) style = a tube-like structure connecting the stigma to the ovary at the base of the pistil
3) ovary- enlarged base of the pistil, containing one or more ovules.

Front 318

What are sepals?

Back 318

What covers the flower

Front 319

In flowers what are the male and female gametophytes?

Back 319

Males: pollen grain
Females: embryo sac containing nuclei including the two polar (endosperms) nuclei and an egg nucleus

Front 320

In flowers when does fertilization occur? What happens? And what happens to the other sperm that enters?

Back 320

occurs when the sperm nuclei enter the embryo sac.

One haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the haploid egg nucleus to form the diploid zygote, which develops into the embryo.

THe other sperm nuclues fuses with the 2 polar bodies to form the endosperm (triploid or 3N)

Front 321

What N is the endosperm and what is its purpose? WHat happens to the sperm in dicotyledonous plants?

Back 321

1 sperm nucleus + 2 polar bodies = 3N endosperm

Endosperm serves as food for the embryonic plant.

In dicotyledonous plants the endosperm is absorbed by the seed leaves (cotyledons)

Front 322

In plant reproduction how does the zygote divide?

Back 322

mitotically

Front 323

What does a plant embryo consist of?

Back 323

1) Epicotyl
2) Cotyledons
3) Hypocotyl
4) Endosperm
5) seed coat

Front 324

Epicotyl is..

Back 324

the precursor of the upper stem and leaves

Front 325

cotyledons is...

Back 325

these are the seed leaves. Dicots have two seed leaves while monocots have only one.

Front 326

hypocotyl. is...

Back 326

this develops into the lower stem and root

Front 327

Endosperm is...

Back 327

the endosperm frows and feed the embryo. in dicots, the cotyledon absorbs the endopserm

Front 328

seed coat is...

Back 328

develops from the outer covering of the ovule.

Front 329

embryo + seed coat = ?

Back 329

the seed

Front 330

What are meristem cells?

Back 330

They are key embryonic cells in higher plant development. THese tissues undergo active cell reproduction Gradually, the cells elongate and differentiate into cell types characteristic of the species.

Front 331

What are apical meristems and where are they found?

What are lateral meristems and where are they found?

Back 331

found in the tips of roots and stems. Growth in length occurs only at these points

Lateral meristems or cambium is located between the xylem and phloem. This tissue permits growth in diameter and can differentiate into new xylem and phloem cells.

Front 332

True or false: lateral meristem cells is not an active tissue in monocots (grasses) or herbaceous dicots (alfalfa) but is predominant in woody dicots like oaks?

Back 332

True.

Front 333

What are the two main difference in mitosis between plants and animals

Back 333

1) plants don't have centrioles
2) Plants develop cell wall, animals have cleavage furrow and divide by cytokinesis

Front 334

The chromosome number of offspring produced via parthenogenesis is
A: diploid
B: haploid
C: 2N
D: Both A and C

Back 334

B haploid

Front 335

Genes are composed of what and located where?

Back 335

composed of DNA and located on chromosomes

Front 336

When a gene exists in more than one form, the alternative forms are called?

Back 336

alleles

Front 337

The genetic makeup of and individual is...

The physical manifestation of the genetic makeup is the individual's

Back 337

genotype

Phenotype

Front 338

WHat probability tech. is usually used when looking at genetics problems?

Back 338

the multiplication rule

Front 339

WHat does a gene represent?

In pea plants, there is a _____that _______for purple flowers.

Back 339

it represents the genetic material on a chromosome that contains the instructions for creating particular trait.

gene that codes for purple flowers

Front 340

A _____is one of several varieties of a gene.

Back 340

Allele

In pean plants, there a retwo alleles of the gene for flower color-purple allele, which codes for purple flower, and the white allele, which codes for white flowers.

Front 341

THe ____refers to the location on a chromosome where a gene is located.

Back 341

locus

Front 342

If the two alleles inherited for a gene are different, one allele may be _____________, while the other is ______________.

Back 342

dominant or recessive

Front 343

What does homozygous dominant refer to ?
2) homozygous recessive
3) Heterozygous

Back 343

refers tot he inhertiance of two dominant alleles (PP)
2) two recessive alleles are inherited (pp) and the recessive trait is expressed.
3) heterozygous refers to the condition where the two inherited alleles are different (Pp). The dominant allele is expressed

Front 344

What does the law of segregation refer to?

Back 344

During meiosis I homologous chromosomes migrate to opposite poles. As result, each gamete will contain one allele for each gene

Front 345

In Mendel's experiment he mated or ______, two varieties of pea plant to form offspring, or ______

Back 345

crossed, hybrids

Front 346

A cross between a purple-flowerd pea and a white-flowered pea is called a _______. Why?

Back 346

monohybrid cross, because it involves a gene for only on trait, the gene for flower color.

Front 347

What do these mean:
1) P generation
2) F1 generation
3) F2 gen

Back 347

P gen = the parents
2) F1 gen = the offspring from the crossing of the parents
3) F2 gen = the offspring produced from crosses among the F1

(F stands for filial, which refers to sons or daughters)

Front 348

WHat is the only type of phenotype can the genotype be predicted with 100% accuracy?

Back 348

ONLY a recessive phenotype

Front 349

How would you determine the genotype of something?

Back 349

do a test cross:

Front 350

What is a test cross?

What genotype will you always know?

Back 350

It is the mating of an individual whose genotype you are trying to determine with an individual whose genotype is unkown.

the recessive trait (pp)

Front 351

What is the trend for Mendel's second law of independent assortment?

Back 351

Two traits are being observed
- Both parents are homozygous
- Tall is dominant to dwarf and Purple is dominant to white
- Parents TTPP and ttpp.
- F1 = TtPp
- TtPp crossed with TtPp = 9:3:3:1

Front 352

What is the phenotype of these crosses:

1) YYRR x yyrr
2) YyRr x YyRr

Back 352

1) Only one phenotype: YyRr
2) Phenotype ratio: 9:3:3:1

Front 353

What test is used to know if it is incomplete dominance?

Back 353

Snapdragon: red flowers is R; white flowers is r. Combined Rr = pink.

or straight and curly hair crossed might yield wavy hair

Front 354

What is codominance?

Back 354

An inheritance pattern where both inherited alleles are completely expressed.

Front 355

How will imagining a continuum help keep distinguish between the three kinds of inheritance?

Back 355

One extreme = complete dominance by a dominant allele over a recessive allele.

Other extreme: Both allelels are expressed (codominance)

In the middle: a blending of two different alleles produces an intermediate phenotype (Incomplete dominance)

Front 356

What is a classic example of codominance and multiple alleles?

Back 356

ABO blood groups

Front 357

If an individual with I^BI^B, I^Bi, or ii blood is given to type A blood, then the immune system of the recipient will identify the A Carbohydrate on the introduced red blood cells as a __________

Back 357

foreign substance

Front 358

What does the immune system term foreign substances and how do they respond to them?

What is the result?

Back 358

THe immune system responds to foreign substances as ANTIGENS.

The immune system responds to antigens by producing ANTIBODIES that attack the antigens.

The result is clumping, or AGGLUTINATION, of the blood and possibly death.

Front 359

What blood type is known as the universal donor?

the universal recipient?

Back 359

Universal donor = O (b/c no A or B carbohydrates)

Universal recipient = AB (b/c has both A and B carbo = "self")

Front 360

What is epistasis? Where does the frequently occur?

Back 360

occurs when one gene affects the phenotypic expression of a second gene.
- This frequently occurs in the expression of pigmentation. One gene turns on (or off) the production of pigment, while a second gene controls either the amounf o pigment produced or the color of the peigment. If the first gene codes for no pigment, then the expression of the second gene has no affect, regardless of the kind of pigmentation it encodes.

Front 361

This occurs in the pigmentation of fur in mice

A. Multiple Alleles
B. Pleiotropy
C. Polygenic Inheritance
D. Epistasis

Back 361

D. Epistasis

One gene codes for the presence or absence of pigmentation. A SECOND gene codes for the color of pigmentation, black or brown. Thus, C and c represent the alleles for the presence and absence of color, and B and b represent the alleles for black and brown pigments. As the allele notation indicates, both genes are expressed by CCBB, CCBb, CcBB, and CcBb are all black, and the expressions of CCbb and Ccbb are both brown. However, whenever cc is inherited, no pigment is produced and the fur is white regardless of the color encoded by the B allele.

Front 362

WHat is pleiotropy? What is an example?

Back 362

Pleiotropy occurs when a single gene has more than one phenotypic expression.

I.e. one gene in pea plants can express not only for round or wrinkled but the same gene also influences the phenotypic expressions of starch metabolism and water absorption

Front 363

What disease-causing gens exhibit pleiotropy?

Back 363

sickle-cell anemia, a human blood disease, is caused by an allele that incorrectly codes for hemoglobin.

Front 364

What is an example of polygenic inheritance what is it?

Back 364

Def: the interaction of many genes to shape a single phenotype.

The heights of humans is an example. They are not just short or tall but are displayed as a CONTINUOUS VARIATION from very short to very tall. Continuous variation usually results from polygenic inheritance.

Front 365

What is the difference between pleiotropy and polygenic inheritance?

Back 365

Polygenic inheritance = many genes shaping one phenotype.

OPPOSITE OF

Pleiotropy = one gene influencing many phenotypes

Front 366

What are linked genes?

Back 366

Genes that reside ont he SAME chromosome and thus cannot segregate independently because they are physically connected. Genes that are linked are usually inherited together.

Front 367

What is sex-linkage?

Back 367

In humans, females have two W chromosomes, and males have only one. As a result, recessive genes tha are carried on the X chromosome will produce the recessive phenotypes whenever they occur in males, since no dominant allele is present to mask them. The recessive phenotype will thus be much more frequently found in males.

Front 368

Describe how Hemophilia is a sex linked trait

Back 368

Females and males who inherit the normal allele (H) are X^HX^H and X^HY = normal.

For a female to have hemophilia the offspring must be X^hX^h. The offspring must inherit both recessive X^h genes from each parent.

Males on only need to inherit one X^h recessive allele for them to have hemophilia: X^hY. Therefore hemophilia is more likely to occur in males.

Front 369

What organism is often used to study genetics and why?

Back 369

the Fruit Fly (Drosophila melangaster)

1: it reproducs often (short life cycle)
2: It reproduces in large numbers (large sample size)
3: Its chromosomes (especially in salivary gland) are large and easily recognizable in size and shape
4: Its chromosomes are few (4 pairs, 2n=8)
5: Mutations occur relatively frequently

Front 370

True or false the Environement can affect the expression of a gene?

Give examples

Back 370

True
Drosophila: witha given set of genes have cooked wings at low temperature, but straight wings at higher temperature

Himalayan Hare: Warm parts = white hair. Cold parts on body = black hair

Front 371

What is x-inactivation? What is an example?

Back 371

during embryonic development in female mammals, one of the two X chromosomes in each cell does not uncoil into chromatin.

Example is the Calico Cat

Front 372

What is nondisjunction? What are two genetic defects as a cause from this?

Back 372

The chromosomes, during meiosis, do not properly separate.

Down Syndrome and Turner Syndrome

Front 373

How are genetic defects caused?

Back 373

By inheritance of an allele (such as in hemophilia) or It can be caused by chromosomal abnormalities

Front 374

How do chromosomal abnormalities occur?

Back 374

They result when the inherited genome is missing a chromosome or has an extra chromosome (both from nondisjunction), or when one or more chromosomes have portions deleted (called a DELETION), duplicated (DUPLICATION), moved to another chromosome (TRANSLOCATION), or rearranged in reverse orientation on the same chromosome (INVERSION)

Front 375

What are the 5 main ways chromosomal abnormalities can occur?

Back 375

nondisjunction
deletion
duplication
translocation
inversion

Front 376

What is the classic case of nondisjunction?

Back 376

Down Syndrome: which is caused by trisomy of chromosome 21.

Front 377

True or false: Most monosomies and trisomies are lethal?

Back 377

True

Front 378

What is monosomy and trisomy?

Back 378

Monosomy = A Zygote that has one copy of a chromosome (2N-1)

Trisomy = A Zygote that has three copies of a chromosome (2N +1)

Front 379

What are mutations?

Back 379

Are changes in the genetic information of a cell, coded in DNA.

Front 380

Mutation that occur in somatic cells lead to....

2) Mutations that occur in sex cells (gametes) will be transmitted to ______

Back 380

1) lead to tumors
2) transmitted to the offspring

Front 381

T or F: Most mutations occur in regions of DNA that do not code for proteins and are silent (not expressed in the phenotype)

Back 381

True

Front 382

Mutations that do change the sequence of amino acids in proteins are most often _____ and _______

Back 382

recessive and deleterious

Front 383

What are mutagenic agents and what are the types? ANd most agents are _______

Back 383

Mutagenic agents induce mutations.

- cosmic rays
- x-rays
- radioactivity
- chemical compounds like colchicine (which inhibits spindle formation, therby cuasing polyploidy), or mustard gas

THey are usually carcinogenic

Front 384

What are mutations types?

Back 384

IN a gene mutation, nitrogen bases are :
1) added
2) deleted
3) or substituted

Front 385

This genetic disorder is the inability to properly break down the amino acid-Phenylalanine. Accumulation of phenylalanine in untreated children causes mental retardation. Symptoms can be avoided with diets low in phenylalanine.:

A. Sickle-cell anemia
B. Duchenne's muscular
C. Phenylketonuria
D. Down Syndrome

State the patter on inheritance

Back 385

C. Phynalketonuria

Pattern =autosomal recessive

Front 386

This is an anbnormal hemoglobin
A. Sickle-cell anemia
B. Duchenne's muscular
C. Phenylketonuria
D. Down Syndrome

State the patter on inheritance

Back 386

A. Sickle-Cell Anemia

Pattern = Autosomal recessive

Front 387

This is the inability to properly break down certain lipids. Accumulation of the lipids in brain cells causes progressive nervous system dysfunction an dis usually fatal by age four.

A. Sickle-cell anemia
B. Duchenne's muscular
C. Phenylketonuria
D. Down Syndrome
E. Tay-Sachs disease

State the patter on inheritance

Back 387

E. Tay-Sachs

Pattern = autosomal recessive

Front 388

THis genetic deffect is the expression begins in middle age with mild mental illness and loss of motor control progressing to total physical and mental incapability.

A. Huntington's Disease
B. Duchenne's muscular
C. Phenylketonuria
D. Down Syndrome

State the patter on inheritance

Back 388

A. Hungtingon's disease

Pattern = autosomal dominant

Front 389

This is the inability to code for clotting factor requried to from normal blood clots

A. Sickle-cell anemia
B. Duchenne's muscular
C. Phenylketonuria
D. hemophilia

State the patter on inheritance

Back 389

D. hemophilia

sex-linked recessive

Front 390

This is the inability to distinguish red from green

A. Sickle-cell anemia
B. Duchenne's muscular
C. red-green color blindness
D. hemophilia

State the patter on inheritance

Back 390

C. red-green color blindness

sex-linked recessive

Front 391

This is the absence of an essential muscle protein. Results in dystrophy deteriorating muscles and loss of coordination

A. Sickle-cell anemia
B. Duchenne's muscular
C. Phenylketonuria
D. Down Syndrome

State the patter on inheritance

Back 391

B. Ducheene's

sex-linked dominant

Front 392

This genetic defect is the trisomy 21 (three copies of chromosome 21). Physical abnormalities, mental retardation

A. Sickle-cell anemia
B. Duchenne's muscular
C. Tay-Sachs
D. Down Syndrome

State the patter on inheritance

Back 392

D. Downs

nondisjunction of chromosome 21

Front 393

This is XO and female. Union of gamete missing the sex chromosome with a normal egg or sperm bearing an X chromosome.

A. Sickle-cell anemia
B. Duchenne's muscular
C. Turner Syndrome
D. Down Syndrome

State the patter on inheritance

Back 393

C. Turner Syndrome

nondisjuction of sex chromosomes

Front 394

XXY and male. Union of XX gamete and normal Y gamete. Sterile and often mentally retarded

A. Sickle-cell anemia
B. Klinefelter syndrome
C. Phenylketonuria
D. Down Syndrome

State the patter on inheritance

Back 394

B. Klinefelter syndrome

nondisjunction of sex chromosomes

Front 395

Physical and mental retardation and catlike cry.

A. Cri du chat syndrome
B. Turner Syndrome
C. Phenylketonuria
D. Down Syndrome

State the patter on inheritance

Back 395

A. Cri du chat syndrome

deletion in chromosome 5

Front 396

Suppose that in sheep, a dominant allele (B) produces black hair and a recessive allele (b) produces white hair. If you saw a black sheep, you would be able to identify

a. its phenotype for hair color
b. its genotype for for hair color
c. the genotypes for only one of its parents
d. the genotypes for both of its parents
e. the phenotypes for both its parents

Back 396

A. Its phenotype for hair color

All you know that the sheep will be black b/c either of the parents could all types of genotypes and phenotypes.

Front 397

From the cross CCSS x ccss, what is the probability of having an offspring that is CcSs?

Back 397

100% or 1

recognize this type of pattern

Front 398

From the cross CcSs x CcSs, what is the probability of having offspring that is ccss?

Back 398

know that 9:3:3:1 ; the whole is 16

And you know that 1 is completeltly recessive (ccss).
So... 1/16 is your answer

Front 399

From cross CcSs x CcSs, what is the probability of having an offspring that is normal for both traits? (knowing that C and S will yield normal)

Back 399

know that 9:3:3:1

So 9/16 are normal

Front 400

The inheritance of skin color in humans is an example of which of the following?

A. Pleiotropy
B. Codominance
C. Epistasis
D. Polygenic inheritance
E. Gene linkage

Back 400

D. Polygenic inheritance; since the range of skin colors in humans shows continuous varation from very pale to very dark, it is most likely coded by many genes (polygenic inheritance)

Front 401

Red-headed people frequently have freckles. What best explains this?

Back 401

The genes for these two traits are linked on the same chromosome.

When two traits frequently occur together, then they are probably linked. Sometimes, a red-headed person my not hvae freckles, or a freckled person may not have red hair. IN these cases, there wsa probably a crossover event, exchaning one of the two genes with an alele that did not code for freckles or red hair.

Front 402

True or false: In domestic cats, two alleles of a sex-linked (x-linked) gene code for hair color. One allele codes for yellow hair, and the other allele codes for black hair. Cats can be all yellow or all black, or they can be calico, a coat characterized by randomly arranged patches of yellow and black hair. With repsect to this gene, this is true:

A Calico female and a yellow male can produce a male calico cat.

Back 402

False: In order to be calico you must have both X^B (black) and X^Y (yellow) alleles. Males can only have one X allele. Therefore they can only be yellow or black; never calico.

Front 403

DNA and RNA are polymers of what?

A, Amino Acids
B. Nucleotides

Back 403

B. Nucleotides

Front 404

A nucleotide is a:

monomer or polymer

And what does it consists of?

Back 404

A monomoer consisting of a nitrogen base, a sugar, and a phosphate group.

Front 405

For DNA label the following components:
1) Nucleotide components (sugar and nitrogen bases)
2) Function
3) Structure

Back 405

1) Sugar = deoxyribose
Nitrogen bases=CTAG
2) contains hereditary information (genes) of the cell
3) double helix

Front 406

For RNA label the following components:
1) Nucleotide components (sugar and nitrogen bases)
2) Function
3) Structure

Back 406

1) Sugar = ribose
Nitrogen bases = CUAG
2) 3 Functions of RNA and their structure

1) mRNA-provies the instructions for assembling amino acids into a polypeptide chain. STRUCTURE = LINEAR

2) tRNA = delivers amino acids to a ribosome for their addition into a growing polypeptide chain. STRUCTURE = "clover leaf" shaped

3) rRNA - combines with proteins to form ribosomes. STRUCTURE = globular

Front 407

How many kinds of DNA are there?

How many kinds of RNA are there?

Back 407

1

3 (mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA)

Front 408

In DNA replication semiconservative means that____

Back 408

Each new daughter helix contains an intact strand from the parent helix and a newly synthesized strand

Front 409

Walk through the 9 abbreviated steps of DNA synthesis

Back 409

1) Helicase = separates DNA into two strands (leading (3->5) lagging (5->3()
2) SSB's coat string to DNA from reforming
3) Topoisomers = straighten out kinks
4) RNA Primase = synthesize RNA Primer
5) DNA polymerase = extends DNA strand (always builds 5 -> 3) direction
6) Sliding clamp = increase processivity
7) RNAse H = remove RNA primer (nucleotides)
8)DNA polymerase = fills in gap with DNA nucleotides
9) ligase = connects short DNA strands, created by Okazaki fragments.

Front 410

DNA replication occurs where and during what phase? be specific

Back 410

Occurs in nucleus, during interphase durin the S phase.

Front 411

The language of DNA consists of how many "LETTERS"?

THe language of PROTEINS (amino acid language) consists of how many "WORDS"?

Back 411

four: ATCG

PROTEINS: 20 words: the 20 amino acids

Front 412

How is the DNA language translated to produce 20 words in the amino acid language?

Back 412

The DNA language must be translated my "mRNA" in such a way as to produce the 20 words in the amino acid language; hence, the triplet code.

Front 413

How is the base sequence of mRNA translated? And what are these called?

Back 413

mRNA is translated in a series of triplets called "codons"

Front 414

How do mutations occur in DNA?

Back 414

If a DNA error is not reparired = mutation

Front 415

What kinds of mutations are there?

Back 415

incorrect nucleotide = substitution

2) a missing nucleotide = deletion

3) an additional nucleotide not present in the original DNA molecule = insertion

Front 416

What happens when an insertion occurs in DNA?

Back 416

it causes all the subsequent nucleotides to be displaced one position, producing a frameshift mutations.

Front 417

Radiation or chemicals that cause mutations are called

Back 417

mutagens

Front 418

_________are mutagens that activate uncontrolled cell growth (cancer)

Back 418

carcinogens

Front 419

What types of instructions does DNA contain?

Back 419

DNA in chromosomes contains instructions that regulate development, growth, and the metabolic activities of cells.

THe DNA instructions tells whether a cell will be that of a pea plant, human, or something specific to that organism.

Front 420

How does DNA control the cell?

Back 420

it contains codes for polypeptides. Many polypeptides are enzymes that regulate chemical reactions, and these chemical rxns influence the resulting charatersitic of the cell.

Front 421

The process that describes how enzymes and other proteins are made from DNA is called...

Back 421

Protein synthesis

Front 422

What are the three steps to protein synthesis? briefly describe each of the steps (generally)

Back 422

1) transcription = RNA molecules are created by using the DNA molecule as a template.
2) RNA processing = RNA processing modifies the RNA molecule with deletions and additions
3) translation- the processed RNA molecules are used to assemble amino acids into apolypeptide.

Front 423

during which phase of protein synthesis are the three kinds of RNA molecules produced? What are those three?

Back 423

Transcription

1) mRNA
2) tRNA
3) rRNA

Front 424

RNA kind be found where?

Back 424

in both the nucleus and cytoplasm and is usually single stranded unlike DNA.

Front 425

DNA -> DNA is known as...
2) DNA -> RNA
3) RNA -> Protein

WHich direction are they all synthesized?

Back 425

replication
transcription
Translation

DNA synthesized 5' -> 3' direction
2) new RNA synthesized in 5' -> 3' direction
3) mRNA read in 5' -> 3' direction

Front 426

Where are each of these synthesized?
1) tRNA
2) mRNA
3) rRNA

Back 426

tRNA and mRNA = synthesized in the nucleus

rRNA = synthesized in the NUCLEOLUS

Front 427

What is
1) mRNA
2) tRNA
3) rRNA

Back 427

1) mRNA = is a single strand of RNA that provides the template used for sequencing amino acids into a polypeptide.

2) tRNA = is a short RNA molecule that is used for transporting amino acids to their proper place on the mRNA template.

3) rRNA molecules are the building blocks of ribosomes.

Front 428

What are the characteristics of mRNA?

Back 428

A. FUNCTION: Acts as a template used for sequencing amino acids

B. STRAND: single
C. SYNTHESIZED: Nucleus
D. monocistronic = one mRNA strand codes for one polypeptide
E. PROMOTER REGION: T-A-T-A
F. SYNTHESES DIRECTION: 5'->3'
G. TERMINATION in eukary: AAAAAAA
H. Has 5'-cap (-P-P-P-G-5). Purpose is to provide mRNA stability and a point of attachment for small RNA subunit.
I. Has poly-A tail. purpose provides stability and helps move mRNA through nuclear envelope out to cytoplasm.
J. mRNA has segments: exons and introns (snRNP's delete out introns)

Front 429

What are the characteristics of tRNA?

Back 429

A. FUNCTION: is a short RNA molecule that is used for transporting amino acids to their proper place (code) on the mRNA template
B. SHAPE: 'three-clover = 3-dimensional
C. SYNTHESIZED: Nucleus
D. Contains Anti-codon
E. Has amino acid attachment
F. In cytoplasm, amino acids attach to the 3' end of the tRNAs, forming aminoacyl-tRNA. The reaction requires an enzyme specific to each tRNA (aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase) AND the energy from one ATP.
G. The amino acid-tRNA bond that results is a high-energy bond, creating and "activated' amino acid-tRNA complex.

Front 430

What are the characteristics of rRNA?

Back 430

A. FUNCTION: rRNA molecules are the building blocks of ribosomes.
B. SYNTHESIZED: nucleolus
C.

Front 431

How are ribosomes made and what is there part in protein synthesis?

Back 431

Ribosomes are made within the nucleolus. In there, various proteins are imported from the cytoplasm and are assembled with rRNA to from large and small ribosomal subunits. Together, the two subunits form a RIBOSOME, which coordinates the activities of the mRNA and tRNA during translation.

The small ribosomal subunit + mRNA + tRNA = initiates translation.

The Large ribosomal subunit follow shortly. The large has 3 sites: A, P, E

Front 432

After transcription what three things are transported across the nuclear envelope?

Back 432

mRNA, tRNA and ribosomal subunits (small and large)

Front 433

In protein synthesis go through the steps of Transcription for me

Back 433

1) Initiation:
A. RNA polymerase attaches to promoter regions on DNA = unzips
B. Promoter region for mRNA: T-A-T-A

2) ELONGATION
A. RNA polymerase assembles RNA nucleotides using 1 DNA strand as a template
B. RNA synthesized 5'->3' direction

3) Termination:
A. RNA Polymerase reads termination stop codon on DNA = AAAAAAA

Front 434

In protein synthesis go through the steps of RNA Processing for me.

Back 434

Before mRNA leave nucleus it goes through two kinds of alternations

Alteration 1:
Both ends of the mRNA get attachments
A. 5' end gets a 5'-cap which is a guanine nucleotide molecule (GTP). This provides stability and a point of connection for the small ribosomal subunit
B. THe 3' end gets a poly-A tail. Provides stability and helps get through the nuclear envelop.

Alteration #2:
A. mRNA segments are removed
B. entons = coded
C. introns = noncoded
These are deleted by snRNP's before leaving the nucleus.

Front 435

In protein synthesis walk me through Translation

Back 435

Before that tRNA is doing is thing out in the cytoplasm, after leaving the nucleus and transcription. tRNA finds amino acids that are floating around and attaches to them (specifically) = forming aminoacyl-tRNA. This specific reaction is helped by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase. tRNA is now Activated and ready to go.

INITIATION:
1. Small Ribosomal Subunit attached to 5' end (GTP) of mRNA.

2. tRNA (with anticodon UAC) carries amino acid Met attaches to mRNA at start codon (AUG), with hydrogen bonds

3. Large Ribosomal Subunit attaches to the mRNA, forming a complete ribosome with the tRNA (bearing Met) occupying the P site.

ELONGATION:
4. A different aminoacyl-tRNA attaches at A site and a peptide bond is formed between Met and the new amino acid that tRNA brought in. The A site turns into peptidyl-RNA. then shifts into the P site, freeing up space for another aminoacyl-tRNA to land on A site. process is repeated.

5. The P site then shifts to the E site where the tRNA (no longer aminoacyl-tRNA) goes back into the cytoplasm to pick up more aminoacids.

TERMINATION:
6. Ribosome encounters one of three stop codons.

Large and small ribosomal subunits and mRNA are released. They can go through this again if they would like.

Front 436

What energy is used during translation?

Back 436

GTP

Front 437

In eukaryotes how is DNA organized?

Back 437

The DNA is packaged with proteins called Histones to form DNA-histone complexes called NUCLEOSOMES (look likes beads)

Front 438

How is a nondividing cell organized?

Back 438

Two ways
1) Euchromatin: describes regions where DNA is loosely bound to nucleosomes. DNA in these regions are being actively transcribed.

2. Heterochromatin: areas where nucleosomes are more tightly compacted, and where DNA is inactive. Stains Darker because more dense.
2) Heterochromatin

Front 439

List all of the places DNA is found in a eukaryotic cell?

Back 439

Nucleus
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria

Front 440

What are viruses?

Back 440

Parasites of cells

Front 441

WHat are bacteriophages or phages?

Back 441

Viruses that ONLY attack bacteria

Front 442

What parts make up a virus?

Back 442

- nucleic acid (DNA OR RNA)
- surrounded by coat protein called CAPSID.
- some capsids have ENVELOPE, that helps penetrate hose cell

Front 443

What are the two basic replication cycles of viruses?

Back 443

1) lytic cycle
2) lysogenic cycle

Front 444

Bacteriophages that replicate by the lytic cycle, killing their host cells, are said to be

Back 444

virulent

Front 445

Describe the Lytic cycle

Back 445

Virus penetrates teh cell membrane of the host cell and nused the enxymes of the host cell to replicate viral DNA, transcribes viral DNA into RNA, and translates the RNA into proteins.

Host cell lyses and infects other cells doing the same thing.

Front 446

Describe the lysogenic cycle

Back 446

Viral DNA temporarily incorporated in Hosts cell. A virus that is dormant, causing no harm, is a PROVIRUS (OR if a bacteriophage a PROPHAGE)

Front 447

What is a retrovirus?

Back 447

A type of virus that uses an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to make a DNA complement of the virus's RNA. From it can enter either lytic or lysogenic cycle

Front 448

T or False Bacteria are eukaryotes?

Back 448

False, Prokaryotes

Front 449

What is bacteria made of and how does it reproduce?

Back 449

No nucleus
No spindle apparatus
No microtubules
No centrioles
No histones (proteins invloved with DNA structure)
Yes single Circular DNA Molecule
Yes Plasmids = short, circular DNA molecules outside the chromosome, which contain accessory genes.

Front 450

What are episomes and who has them?

Back 450

Bacteria have them. They are plasmids that are capable of integrating into the bacterial chromosome

Front 451

How is bacteria replicated?

Back 451

proceeds in both direction. simultaneously. DNA is synthesized in the 5'->3' direction

Front 452

How do bacteria cells reproduce?

Back 452

Binary Fission (asexual process)

Front 453

How does bacteria get genetic variance?

Back 453

Three ways
1. transformation
2. conjugation
3. transduction

Front 454

What is transformation related to bacteria?

Back 454

Method of bacterial genetic variance. Transformation occurs when bacteria absorb DNA from their surroundings.

Front 455

What is transduction in relation to bacteria?

Back 455

A method of bacterial genetic variance. Transduction occurs when new DNA is introduced into bacteria by a virus

Front 456

What is conjugation in relation to bacteria?

Back 456

Process by which DNA is exchanged between bacteria = like SEXAUL MATING.

A cytoplasmic conjugation bridge is formed between two cells and genetic material is transferred from the donoer male (+) to the recipient female (-) type. Only bacteria containing plasmids called sex factors are capable of conjugating.

Front 457

What are two examples of conjugation sex factors?

Back 457

1) F Factor in E. coli.
2) R Factor that provide bacteria with resistance against antibiotics

Front 458

How do prokaryotes control their metabolism? And is this only found in prokaryotes?

Back 458

The regulation of gene expression (transcription)

This can also be found in prokaryotes?

Front 459

What is an operon

Back 459

In bacteria they contain sequences of DNA that direct certain biosynthetic pathways. Regulation of a gene expression (transcription) enables prokaryotes to control their metabolism.

Front 460

What are the four parts/regions of an operon?

Back 460

1) regulatory gene = PRODUCES a repressor protein, a substance that can prevent gene expression by blocking the acton of RNA polymerase
2) promoter = is a sequence of DNA to which the RNA polymerase attaches to begin transcription
3) operator = can block the action of the RNA polymerase if the region is occupied
4) structural genes = contain DNA sequences that code for proteins

Front 461

If RNA polymerase bind to promotor ->

2) Repressor bind to operator ->

3) Inducer binds to repressor -> A -> B

Back 461

1) structural genes transcribe

2) structural genes NOT transcribed

3) #1 no binding to operator -> #2 structural genes transcribed

Front 462

Why are lethal dominant alleles much less common than lethal recessive alleles?

Back 462

Because the lethal dominant allels usually kill the person, thus the dominant allele dies with them and not passed on. But a person can be a carrier of a lethal allele as long as it is recessive. Those can be passed b/c the host does not die

Front 463

What are the three differences between DNA and RNA ?

Back 463

DNA double stranded; RNA singl
2) deoxyribous : RNA ribose
3) DNA: T nitrogen base; RNA U nitrogen base

Front 464

Walk me through the Hormones and the female reproductive cycle.

Back 464

1) The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary initiate the reproductive cycle.
2) The follicle develops
3) the follicle secrets estrogen
4) Ovulation occurs
5) THe corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone
6) The endometrium thickens
7) The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary terminate the reproductive cycle
8) The endometrium disintegrates
9) If implantation occurs the implanted embryo sustains the endometrium

Front 465

How many hours can an oocyte be fertilized after ovulation?

Egg and sperm fused =

Back 465

12-24 hours

Zygote

Front 466

In early development the zygote begins a series of rapid______. What is the purpose of that?

Back 466

rapid CLEAVAGES. This means rapid cell divisions without cell growth. Meaning the total cell cytoplasm is constant

Front 467

T or F cleavage in embryonic development also increases the surface-to-volume ratio of each cell, thereby improving gas exchange and nutrient exchange

Back 467

True

Front 468

What is an intermediate cleavage? WHat is an example?

What is an determinate cleavage?

Back 468

Indeterminate Cleavages produce blastomeres that if separated results in cells that maintain the ability to develop into a complete organism.
Identical twins are a result of indeterminate cleavage

Determinate cleavage results in cells (blastomeres) whose future differentiation pathways are determined at a an early developmental stage.

Front 469

At fertilization take me through the cleavage steps through the end.

Back 469

Fertilized egg
-> 2-cell stage
-> 4 cell stage
-> 8 cell stage
-> 16 cell stage
-> morula
-> Blastula
->Gastrula

Front 470

What is the a morula?
Blastula?

Back 470

A solid ball of cells as a result of successive cleavage

Blastula: As cell divisions continue, liquid fills the morula and pushes the cells out to form a circular cavity surrounded by a single layer of cells. This hallow sphere of cells is called the blastula, and the cavity is the BLASTOCOEL

Front 471

When does gastrulation occur?

Back 471

Once implanted in the uterus, cell migrations transform the single cell layer of the blastula into a two then three-layered structure called gastrula

Front 472

What are the three primary germ layers in the blastula?

Back 472

Ectoderm
Endoderm
Mesoderm

Front 473

Name the parts

Back 473

Front 474

State which germ layer these originate from:
hair
thyroid
circulatory system
nails

Back 474

Hair = ectoderm
thyroid = endoderm
circulatory system = mesoderm
epidermis = ectoderm

Front 475

State which germ layer these originate from:
epidermis
epithelial linings of digestive and respiratory tracts
excretory system
nervous system
musculoskeletal system

Back 475

epidermis = ectoderm
epithelial linings of digestive and respiratory tracts = endoderm

excretory system = mesoderm
musculoskeletal system = mesoderm
nervous system = ectoderm

Front 476

What are the four extraembryonic membranes that develop during development?

Back 476

chorion
allantois
amnion
yolk sac

Front 477

What are the two main components to the specialized circulatory system in placental internal development for humans and most mammals?

Back 477

The placenta and umbilical cord

Placenta: s a blend of maternal and embryonic tissues across which gases, nutrients, and wastes are exchanged.

Umbilical Cord: Transport gases, nutrients, and swastes between the embryo and the placenta

Front 478

WHat is the chorion and what originates from it?

Back 478

The chorion is the outer membrane. The chorion with other maternal tissues forms the placenta.

Front 479

How is the umbilical cord made?

Back 479

It originates from the allantois

Front 480

What is the allantois?

Back 480

It begins as a sac that buds off from the archenteron. It encircles the embryo forming a layer below the chorion. Later it fuses with chorion which leads to the development of the umbilical chord. (note that the chorion turns into the placenta)

- Also The blood vessels of the allantoic wall enlarge and become the umbilical vessels, which will connect the fetus to the developing placenta.

Front 481

WHat is the amnion?

Back 481

surrounds the embryo and is filled with fluid that cushions

Front 482

What is the yolk sac for Placental mammals and for birds and reptiles?

Back 482

Placental mammals = yolk sac is empty. Nutrition is obtained from placenta. It is also the site of early development of blood vessels.

in Birds and Reptiles: Provide nutrients for them.

Front 483

What and where are acrosomes? What do they do?

Back 483

Found on tip of sperm head.
- a lysosome containing enzymes that can penetrate the egg.

Front 484

How is circulation accomplished with: Protozoans

Back 484

movement of gases and nutrients is accomplished by simple diffusion within the cell

Front 485

How is (gas exchange) circulation accomplished with: Cnidarians (is this a Phylum or class etc? Give some organism examples)

Back 485

Cnidarians = Phylum
Examples = jellyfish, corals

Circulation = They have body walls that are two cells thick. All cells are in direct contact with either the internal or external environments so there is no need for specialized circulatory system.

Front 486

How is circulation accomplished with: Arthropods ( is this a phylum, kingdom, class, order, family etc? Give some organism examples)

Back 486

Arthropods = Phylum
Examples = butterfly, centipede, scorpion

Gas exchange = Arthropods have OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS in which blood (interstitial fluid) is in direct contact with the body tissues. The blood is circulated by boy movements. Blood flows through a DORSAL VESSEL and into spaces called SINUSES where exchange occurs.

Front 487

How is circulation accomplished with: ANNELIDS ( is this a phylum, kingdom, class, order, family etc? Give some organism examples)

Back 487

Annelids = Phylum
Examples = segmented worms, earth worms, leeches

Gas exchange = Closed Circulatory system. Blood is confined to vessels. Blood moves towards the head in the dorsal vessel which functions as the main heart by coordinated contractions.
- 5 pairs of vessels called aortic loops connect the dorsal vessel to the ventral vessel and function as additional mumps.
- Earthworm blood lacks any red blood cells. But has hemoglobin-like pigment that is dissolved in aq solution.

Front 488

The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood into ______

THe left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood into ________

Back 488

1) pulmonary circulation (toward the lungs)

2) systemic circulation (through out the body)

Front 489

Describe each of the following:
Arteries
capillary
vein

Back 489

ARTERIES:
thick-walled, muscular, elastic
CAPILLARIES: smallest
VEINS: thin-walled, inelastic, conduct deoxygenated blood towards heart

Front 490

What is the primary and secondary circulations systems?

Back 490

Primary = blood vessels
Secondary = lymph vessels

Front 491

What do lymph vessels do?

What are lymph nodes

Back 491

transport excess interstitial fluid, called lymph, to the cardiovascular system, thereby keeping fluid levels in the body constant.

Lymph Nodes = swellings along lymph vessels containing phagocytic cells (leukocytes) that filter lymph , removing and destroying foreign particles and pathogens

Front 492

Where where are leukocytes found and what is their main purpose?

Back 492

found in lymph nodes. They filter lymph, removing and destroying foreign particles and pathogens

Front 493

WHat is plasma and what is in it?

Back 493

the liquid portion of blood. An aqueous mixture of:
nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, wastes, hormones, and blood proteins (eg. immunoglobulins, albumin, and fibrinogen)

Front 494

What are the two components of blood?

Back 494

liquid (55%) and cellular (45%)

Front 495

What does the cellular component of blood consist of?

Back 495

erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets

Front 496

What are erythrocytes:
Function
Structure
Originate
Where they are recycled:

Back 496

Erythrocytes = red blood cells

Function: carry oxygen by one of 250 million molecules of hemoglobin on one red blood cell. hemoglobin + oxygen = oxyhemoglobin.

Structure: biconcave, disk-like shape (very efficient)

Originate: formed from stem cell in the bone marrow. They lose nuclei, mitochondria, and membraneous organelles.

Where they are recycled: After about 120 days they are phagocytized by special cells in the SPLEEN AND LIVER

Front 497

What are LEUKOCYTES:
Function
Structure
Originate
Where they are recycled:

Back 497

Function: protective
- Phagocytize foreign matter like bacteria
- Migrate to blood tissue and remain stationary = macrophages
- Involved in immune response and the production of antibodies (B cells) or cytolysis of infected cells (T cells)
Structure: larger than erythrocytes
Originate: Bone marrow
Where they are recycled:

Front 498

What are platelets?

Back 498

Found in cell component of blood. Platelets are cell fragments that lack nuclei and are involved in clot formation.

Front 499

WHat are the main functions of:
Blood
Platelets
Leukocytes

Back 499

Blood: transports nutrients and O2 to tissue, and wastes and CO2 from tissue

Platelets: injury repair

Leukocytes: MAIN component of the immune system.

Front 500

How many molecules of O2 can each molecule of hemoglobin bond to?

Back 500

1 hemoglobin can bond to 4 O2 molecules

Front 501

T or False: Hemoglobin also bind to CO2

Back 501

True

Front 502

What types of pathogens can possibly harm our body

Back 502

bad proteins
bacteria
viruses
fungi

Front 503

In Immune response what is our first line of defense?

Back 503

Skin
Antimicrobial agents (in saliva, tears and mucus)
- cilia in lungs
- gastric juice
- symbiotic bacteria found in Vagina that out compete any foreign agent.

Front 504

WHat is our second line of defense in immune response?

Back 504

Inflammatory response
Phagocytes
Complement
Interferons

Front 505

What is the difference between non-specific and specific immune response?

Back 505

non-specific: is usually our first and second line of defense. They don't remember what type of pathogen they are attacking or know what "specific" type it is. They simply realize that ..."hey, you are not supposed to be here. I am going to kick you out."

Specific immune response. It targets specific antigens

Front 506

The inflammatory response can be generally termed as...

Back 506

"bringing weapons to the fight."

Front 507

What are the most common types of Phagocytes?

Back 507

Neutrophils = fast and abundant
Monocytes = enlarge into large phagocytic cells called macrophages
Macrophages = versatile, heavy lifters
- Natural killers (NK Cells) attack abnormal body cells (such as tumors) or pathogen-infected body cells
- Dendritic cells good with turning into specific immune response

Front 508

What are "complement" in the immune response?

Back 508

is in non-spedific secondary response. is a group of about twenty proteins that "complement" defense reactions.
- proteins help attract phagocytes to foreign particles and help destroy foreign cells by promoting cell lysis (breaking open the cell)

Front 509

WHat are interferons and how are they involved in the immune system?

Back 509

non-specific and part of secondary response.
- substances secreted by cells invaded by viruses that stimulate neighboring cells to produce proteins that help them defend against the viruses.
- like calling 911

Front 510

True or false phagocytes and lymphocytes are leukocytes (white blood cells)

Back 510

True

Front 511

Lymphocytes have two other sub lymphocytes called...

Back 511

B Cells- from the bone marrow (B for bone marrow)

T Cells - come from bone marrow but mature in the thymus

Front 512

What are B cells and what type of immunity are they involved with?

Back 512

Humoral Immunity:
Originate and mature in bone marrow
- Have Y-antibodies on them (which are specialized receptors for antigens = foreign particles)

Front 513

1) Antibodies are also known as

Back 513

1) immunoglobulins

Front 514

What are the properties of antibodies:

Back 514

1) Antibodies are proteins
2) Each antibody is specific to a particular antigen
3) There are 5 classes of antibodies (IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM)
4) Each class is a variation of the basic y-shaped protein that consists of constant regions and variable regions. The variable regions are sequences of amino acids that differ among antibodies and give them specificity to antigens
5) Antibodies inactivate antigens by binding to them -> followed by phagocytosis

Front 515

Why are there so many variable portions on the membrane-bound antibodies on B cells?

Back 515

So that at least one will be able to identify a foreign object/antigen. B/c there is so much out there that could harm us so this is our bodies way of preparing us for whatever comes.

Front 516

What is the process of clottingi?

Back 516

1) Platelets in contact with exposed collagen
->
2) platelets release thromboplastin
->
3) thromboplastin converts inactive prothrombin -> active thrombin
->
4) Thrombin (converts) -> fibrinogen -> fibrin

5) Fibrin coats the damaged area and trap blood cells to form a clot.

Front 517

More condensed version of the clotting process

Back 517

Cut -> platelets release thromboplastin -(conv)> prothrombin -> thrombin -> fibrinogen -> fibrin -> traps blood cells and forms clot

The fluid left after blood clotting = serum

Front 518

Person who is Rh+ is said to what

A person who is Rh- is said to what?

Back 518

1) Rh+ = individuals posess the Rh antigen on the surface of their RBC's

2) Rh- = the individual is lacking the Rh antigen on their RBC's surface

Front 519

Explain the Rh Factor scenario with a mother and child. WHat happens?

Back 519

Rh- Mom has Rh+ baby
-> Rh- mom, sensitized, develops Rh+ antibodies

Rh- mom has another Rh+ baby
-> The Rh+ antibodies that mom developed from the first child attacks the blood of the second child
killing the fetus or severe anemia called erythroblastosis fetalis

Front 520

What do the vascular bundles in plants consist of?

Back 520

xylem, phloem and cambium cells.

Front 521

What is the purpose of xylem and phloem?

Back 521

xylem conducts water and minerals UP the and also provides mechanical support

phloem is conducts sugars

Front 522

What two types of xylem cells can xylem differentiate into?

Back 522

1) vessel cells: shorter and wider, have less or no taper at ens (have perforations = water moves better on vessels than tracheids)

2) tracheids: long and tapered (passes through one tracheid to another through pits)

Front 523

What are the three ways that the xylem pulls water up?

Back 523

1) Transpiration pull - as water evaporates from the leaves of plants, a vacuum is creaetd which pulls water up the stem

2) Capillary action- any liquid in a thin tube will rise due to the surface tension of the liquid and interactions between the liquid and the tube.

3) Root pressure - water entering the root hairs exerts a pressure which pushes water up the stem.

Front 524

The Phloem cells are living and include two types of cells

Back 524

sieve tube cells: form sieve-tube members tha form fluid-conducting columns call sieve tubes. L
- Living, but lack nuclei and ribosomes
- Pores on the end walls of sieve-tube member form sieve plates, areas where the cytoplasm of one cell makes contact with that of the next cell.

companion cells:
-living parenchyma cells that lie adjacent to each sieve-tube member.
- connected to adjaent sieve-tube members by tin tubes of cytoplasm called plasmodesmata, maintain physiological support to the nuclei-lacking sieve-tube members.

Front 525

If a tree is girdled by removing a strip of bark around the trunk, the ______connections are severed and the tree will _____

Back 525

phloem, die

Front 526

What are the three main tissues of plants?

Back 526

1) Ground tissues
A. Parenchyma cells
B. Collenchyma cells
C. Sclerenchyma cells
2) Dermal Tissues
3) Vascular Tissues
A. xylem
B. phloem

Front 527

Ground tissues include what three types of cells...describe each.

Back 527

1) Ground tissues
A. Parenchyma cells: the most common component of ground tissue, have thin walls and serve various function including storage, photosynthesis, and secretion

B. Collenchyma cells:
have thick but flexible cell walls, serve mechanical support functions

C. Sclerenchyma cells:
with thicker wall than collenchyma, also provide mechanical support functions

Front 528

For Monocots:
Cotyledons:
Leaf Venation:
Flower Parts:
VAscular bundles:
Root:

Back 528

For Monocots: ie corn, wheat, sugar cane

Cotyledons:1 cotyledon
Leaf Venation: parallel
Flower Parts: in 3's or multiples thereof
VAscular bundles: scattered xylem and phloem)
Root:fibrous system ( a cluster of many fine roots)

Front 529

For dicots:
Cotyledons:
Leaf Venation:
Flower Parts:
VAscular bundles:
Root:

Back 529

For Dicots:
Cotyledons: 2 cotyledons
Leaf Venation: netted (a branching pattern)
Flower Parts: in 4's, 5's or multiple thereof
VAscular bundles: organized in a circle
Root: taproot (a large single root)

Front 530

What are the parts to a plant embryo?

Back 530

1. epicotyl = embryo top portion = becomes root tip
2. plumule = leaves attached to epicotyl
3. hypocotyl = become young shoot
4. In some embryos, a radicle develops below the hypocotyl. The radicle develops into the root
5. In many monocots, a sheath called the coleoptile surround and protect the epicotyl. = appears as leaf

Front 531

What is the cambium?

Back 531

Cambium cells (two layers thick) are the actively dividing, undifferentiated cells which give rise to xylem and phloem. Cells close to the xylem form into xylem. cambium cells close to phylum form into phylum.

Front 532

What is the difference between primary and secondary growth in plants?

Back 532

Primary growth: occurs in young plants. Growth occurs in the vertical direction

Secondary growth: Plants like conifers and woody dicots not only grow vertically through apical meristems but through lateral meristems = origin of woody plant tissues.

Secondary growth occurs at two lateral meristems: vascular cambium and the cork cambium

Front 533

Cork cambium gives rise to what?

Back 533

the periderm = the protective material that lines the outside of woody plants

Front 534

What are the specialized tissues for the primary structure of a root?

Back 534

1. Epidermis = lines the outside surface of the root.
- Zone of maturation (or differentiation) epidermal cells produce root hairs, which increase the absorptive surface of the roots.

2. Cortex = bulk of the root, main function is the storage of starch

3. Endodermis= ring of tightly packed cells.
- suberin- a fatty substance that creates a water-impenetrable barrier called the casparian strip.
= Result = all water must go through endodermal cells.
= means = endodermal cells can control movement of water

4. Vascular cylinder, or stele: Tissues inside endodermis

Front 535

identify these structures

Back 535

Front 536

Cork cambium produces ->
vascular cambium produces ->

Back 536

the periderm = bark
xylem and phloem

Front 537

What plant vascular tissue makes up the wood of the plant?
2) The xylem that is produced during the more recent years remains active in the support of water =
3) Older xylem, located toward the stem =

Back 537

1) the xylem
2) sapwood
3) heartwood = provides support

Front 538

THe annual rings of a tree are from what?

Back 538

the xylem

Front 539

Identify the different layers and components

Back 539

Front 540

What is a leaf covered witih?

Back 540

waxy cuticle (material is called cutin)

Front 541

WHat is palisade mesophyll

Back 541

consists of parenchyma cells equipped with numerous chloroplasts and large surface areas, specializations for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis in leaves occurs primarily in this tissue. The parenchyma cells are usually tightly packed in one or more layers at the supper surface but can occur at both surfaces in leaves of plants adapted to dry habitats.

Front 542

What is spongy mesophyll?

Back 542

consists of parenchyma cells loosely arranged below the palisade mesophyll. THe numerous intercellular spaces provide air chambers of plants that provide CO2 to photsynthesizing cells (and O2 to respiring cells)

Front 543

What are guard cells?

Back 543

are specialized epidermal cells that control the opening and closing of the stomata. Stomata are openings in the epidermis that allow gas exchange between the inside of the leaf and the external environment

Front 544

WHat are the two ways that water moves toward the center of the root?

Back 544

1) apoplasts = nonliving = water moves through cell walls from one cell to another

2) symplasts = living = moves the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplams of the next through pasmodemsmata, small tubes that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells

Front 545

How is the opening and closing of the stomata regulated?

Back 545

1) Stomata closes when Temps are high (closed photosynthesis stops)
2) Stomata opens with CO2 is low (photosynthesis starts)
3) Stomata close at night and open during the day
4) Stomatal opening accompanied by diffusion of potassium ions (K+)

Front 546

What are the 5 classes of plants hormones?

Back 546

1) Auxin (IAA)
2) Gibberellins
3) Cytokinins
4) Ethylene
5) Abscisic acid (ABA)

Front 547

What is the the function of auxin?

Back 547

Plant hormone
- promotes plant growth by facilitating the elongation of developing cells
- produced at the tips of roots and shoots and, along with other hormones, influences phototropism and geotropism.
- auxin is active in leaves, fruits and germinating seeds
- Actively transported (requiring ATP) from cell to cell.

Front 548

What is phototropism and geotropism?

Back 548

Phototropism = plants repsone to light

geotropism = plants response to gravity

Front 549

What are gibberellins?

Back 549

Plant hormone
- similar to auxin, by promoting plant growth etc.
- Main difference: has HIGH conc. of GA which causes rapid elongaton of stems called BOLTING.
-bolting occurs in rice plants when a fungus that produces GA attacks the plant.

Front 550

What are cytokinins?

Back 550

Plant Hormone:
- stimulate cytokinesis
- produced in roots
- can influence direction of organ development (organogenesis)
- can stimulate growth of lateral buds = apical dominance
- can delay senescence (aging) of leaves

Front 551

What does ethylene do for plants?

Back 551

- A Gas that promotes the ripening of fruit

Front 552

What is abscisic acid (ABA)

Back 552

Plant hormone:
growth inhibiter
- helps in dormant

Front 553

Since plants can't move they can only change their growth patterns. A growth pattern in response to an environmental stimuli is called

Back 553

tropism

Front 554

What are the three types of tropism?

Back 554

1) Phototropism
2) geotropism
3)Thigmotropism: is a response to touch. When vines and other climbing plants contact some object, they respond by wrapping around it.

Front 555

What is photoperiodism?

Back 555

Photoperiodism is the response of plants to changes in the photoperiod, or the relative length of daylight and night.

Front 556

How do plants respond to changes in photoperiod?

What type of mechanism is this?

Back 556

plants maintain a circadian rhythm, a clock that measures the length of day and night.

Endogenous mechanism: it is an internal clock that continues to keep time even if external cues are absent. It uses dawn and dusk to accurately reset its clock to account for any error

Front 557

Describe the role of Phytochrome in a plants circadian clock?

Back 557

1) Pfr appear to reset the circadian-rythm clock

2) Pr is the form of phytochrome synthesized in plant cells

3) Pr and Pfr are in equillibrium during daylight

4) Pr accumulates at night

5) At daybreak, light rapidly converts the accumulated Pr to Pfr

6) Night length is responsible for resetting the circadian-rythm clock

Front 558

In response to stress what does the adrenal cortex synthesize and secrete?

Back 558

The adrenal cortex synthesizes and secretes steroid hormones collectively known as CORTICOSTEROIDS.

Front 559

Where are corticosteroids derived from and what do they include?

Back 559

They are steroid hormones, derived from cholesterol.

Include:
glucocorticoids
mineralcorticoids
cortical sex hormones

Front 560

Posterior Pituitary
Location:
Hormone(s):
Target :
Action:

Back 560

Posterior Pituitary
Location: Base of the brain. but get's its hormones from Hypothalamus. PP only stores them.
Hormone(s): oxytocin and ADH
Target :
-oxytocin = mammary glands
- ADH = Kidneys
Action:
- oxytocin = stimulates release of milk
- ADH = increases reabsorption of water

Front 561

Anterior Pituitary
Location:
Type of Hormone:
Hormone(s):
Target :
Action:
Extra (overall) result:

Back 561

Anterior Pituitary
Location: base of brain
Type of Hormone: Direct (PEG) and Tropic (FLAT)
Hormone(s): FLAT PEG
TARGET :
FLAT (Tropic)
- FSH = ovary, testes
- LH = ovary, testes
- ACTH = adrenal cortex
- TSH = thyroid
PEG (Direct)
- Prolactin = mammary glands
- Endorphines = general
- GH = bone, muscle

ACTION:
FLAT (Tropic)
- FSH = regulates oogenesis (maturation of ovarian follicles = estrogen secreted) and spermatogenesis
- LH = regulates oogenesis (simulates ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum) and spermatogenesis (tell males to synthesis testosterone)
- ACTH = secretion of glucorticoids (cortisol)
- TSH = secretion of T4 and T3
PEG (Direct)
- Prolactin = production of milk
- Endorphines = inhibit pain
- GH = stimulates growth
Extra (overall) result:

Front 562

Hormones:
1) What can be said about a person with stunted growth?
2) What can be said about a person with gigantism

Back 562

1) Dwarfism = under production of GH

2) Gigantism = Over production of GH

Front 563

A disorder characterized by a disproportoinate overgrowht of bone, localized especially in the skull, jaw and feet and hand is

Back 563

Acromegaly:

Over production of GH

Front 564

Pancreas
Source:
Location:
Hormone(s):
Target:
Action:

Back 564

Pancreas
Source: Alpha Cells ad B cells
Location:Next to kidney
Hormone(s):
- glucagon (a-Cells)
- insulin (b-cells)
Target:

- glucagon (a-Cells) = liver
- insulin (b-cells) = liver, muscles, fat
Action:
- glucagon (a-Cells): increases blood glucose
- insulin (b-cells): lower blood glucose

Front 565

What are all of the hormones that increase plasma glucose?

Back 565

Pancreas = glucagon
AP = GH
AC = glucorticoids (cortisol)
AM = epinephrine

Front 566

Adrenal Cortex
Location:
Hormone(s):
Target:
Action:

Back 566

Adrenal Cortex
Location: ON top of kindeys
Hormone(s):
-glucorticoids -> cortisol
-mineralcorticoids ->aldosterone
sex hormones -> androgens

TARGET:
-glucorticoids -> general
-mineralcorticoids -> kidney
sex hormones -> testes
Action:
-glucorticoids -> increase blood glucose
-mineralcorticoids -> increases reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ (increases blood volume and pressure)

sex hormones -> male physiological effect

Front 567

Adrenal Medulla (MEN)
Location:
Hormone(s):
Target:
CONTROLLED:
Action:

Back 567

Adrenal Medula
Location:above kidneys
Hormone(s):
- epinephrine
- norepinephrine

Target:
- epinephrine = blood vessels, liver, heart
- norepinephrine = same

ACTION:
- epinephrine: increases blood glucose, constricts blood vessels (fight or flight response)
- norepinephrine: SAME

CONTROLLED: regulated by ACTH from the AP

Front 568

Thyroid
Location:
Hormone(s):
Target:
Action:
CONTROLLED:

Back 568

Thyroid
Location: on trachea
Hormone(s):
-thyroxin (T4)
-triiodothyronine (T3)
-calcitonin

Target:
-thyroxin (T4) = gen.
-triiodothyronine (T3) = gen.
-calcitonin = bone

Action:
-thyroxin (T4) = Both T4 and T3 increase rate of metabolism necessary for growth
-triiodothyronine (T3)
-calcitonin = decreases Ca+2 in blood
CONTROLLED:

Front 569

1) Thyroid hormones are undersecreted or no secreted at all is

Back 569

hypothyroidism

Front 570

1) Common symptoms of hypothyroidism is:

2) Hypothyroidism in new born infants is called______. How is it characterized?

Back 570

1) slowed heart rate and respiratory rate, fatigue, cold intolerance, and weight gain

2) cretinism: characterized by mental retardation and short stature

Front 571

The thyroid is over stimulated resulting in over secretion of thyroid hormones _____

Back 571

hyperthyroidism

Front 572

WHat are the symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

Back 572

increased metabolic rate, feelings of excessive warmth, profuse sweating, palpitations, weight lose, and protruding eyes.

Front 573

What do hyperthyroidism and hypthyroidism have in common most times?

Back 573

Both often have enlarged thyroid, forming a bulge in the neck called a goiter

Front 574

Parathyroid
Location
Hormones:
Target
Action

Back 574

Parathyroid
Location: on posterior surface of thyroid

Hormones: PTH

Target: bone, kidneys

Action: increases blood Ca+2 levels by stimulating Ca+2 release from bone and decreasing Ca+2 excretion in the kidneys

Front 575

Testes
Hormones:
Target
Action

Back 575

Testes
Hormones: testosterone

Target:testes, general

Action: spermatogenesis, secondary sex characteristics

Front 576

ovary
Hormones:

Target
Action

Back 576

ovary
Hormones:
-estrogen
-progesteron

Target:
-estrogen: uterus, general
-progesteron: uterus

Action:
-estrogen: menstrual cycle, secondary sex charact.

-progesteron: menstrual cycle pregnancy

Front 577

Pineal
Location:
Hormones:
Target:
Action:

Back 577

Pineal
Location: in the head
Hormones: melatonin
Target: body
Action: circadian rhythms

Front 578

Kidneys
Location:
Hormones:
Target:
Action

Back 578

Kidneys
Location: next to pancreas
Hormones: renin
Action:
an enzyme that converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I -> angiotensin II ->which, stimulates AC to secrete aldosterone.

Front 579

Stomach
Location:
Hormones:
Target
Action

Back 579

Stomach
Location:
Hormones: gastrin
Target: stomach
Action: ingested food stimulates the stomach to release gastrin. Gastrin tells gastrin glands to secrete HCL

Front 580

Small Intestine
Location:
Hormones:
Target
Action

Back 580

Small Intestine
Location:
Hormones:
- secretin
- cholecystokinin

Target:
- secretin = pancreas
- cholecystokinin = gall bladder

Action:
- secretin = released by small intestine when acidic food enters from the stomach. Secretin stimulates the secreation of alkaline bicarbonate solution from the pancreas which neutralizes the acidity of the chyme.

- cholecystokinin = is released from the small intestine in response to the presence of fats and causes the cnotractoin of the gallbladder and release of bile into the small intestine.

Bile is involved in the digestion of fats.

Front 581

What is the difference between peptide hormones and steroid hormones

Back 581

Peptide hormones:
- surface receptors
- generally act via secondary messengers (ie cyclic AMP)

Steroid hormones:
- intracellular receptors
- hormone/receptor binding to DNA promotes transcription of specific genes

Front 582

What are the parts of the neuron?

Back 582

cell body = has the nucleus and other cellular organelles.

dendrite = short , branched lots, receives stimuli

axon = long, SENDS nerve impulses

Front 583

What produces myelin in the CNS and PNS?

Back 583

CNS = oligodendrocytes
PNS = schwann cells

Front 584

1) gaps between myelin are =
2) gaps between the axon terminals of once cell and the dendrites of the next cell =
3) what communicates between the axons and dendrites?

Back 584

1) nodes of Ranvier
2) synapse
3) neurotransmitters

Front 585

My finger gets pricked. What happens to the neuron? Go through the steps

Back 585

Neuron receive signals from sensory receptors from other neurons
->
info is transferred along axon
->
Action potentials = impulses travel the length of the axon and invade the nerve terminal,
-> causing the release of neurotransmitter into the synapse.

Front 586

The potential difference between the extracellular space and the intracellular space is called....

Back 586

resting potential

Front 587

1) neurons that receive initial stimulus?

2) target cells that produce some kind of response

3) located in the spinal cord or brain and receive impulses from sensory neurons or send impulses to motor neurons

Back 587

1) sensory or afferent neurons

2) motor or efferent (efferent = means doing something)

3) association or internerons

Front 588

When a neuron is at rest which side is more positive/negative. And which side to the Na+ and K+ ions reside?

Back 588

Outside cell = Na+, more positive

Inside cell = K+, more negative

Front 589

What ultimately contributes to the over negative charge in a neuron?

Back 589

the large, negatively charged ions (proteins or nucleic acids), contribute to the over all negative charge of the cell membrane

Front 590

True or false, a neuron is depolarized at rest?

Back 590

False

Front 591

What is the approximate mV of a resting potential?

Back 591

-70mV

Front 592

True or false, the neuron membrane is selectively permeable?

Back 592

True

Front 593

Walk me through a stimulus from start to finish

Back 593

1) Neuron Resting potential at -70mV, is polarized. Inside cell is negative with K+ and outside cell is positive with Na+

2) stimulus comes ->create action potential

3) Action potential:
-> gated ion channels open
-> Na+ rush IN
->cell is depolarized (more positive on the inside)(from -70 to 0)
-> if stimulus is above THRESHOLD LEVEL
-> more Na+gates open
-> more Na+ flows in
-> causes a ACTION POTENTIAL
-> more Na+ gates are stimulated down the axon
Side NOTE: This is an ALL-OR-NOTHING EVENT: when a the stimulus fails to produce a depolarization that exceeds the threshold value, no action potential proceeds)

3. REPOLARIZATION
-> as Na+ flows in...
-> K+ ion channels open
-> K+ rushes OUTSIDE the cell
-> repolarizing the cell.

4. HYPERPOLARIZATION
-By the time the K+ channels close more K+ is outside the cell than in
-> causes hyperpolarization, more negative than resting potential (-80 mV)

5. Refractory period:
-> we are at the opposite from where we started: more K+ is outside than inside.
-> the neuron will not respond to any more stimuli until it is back to normal = REFRACTORY PERIOD
-> Na+/K+ pumps use active transport (use ATP) to get the K+ back inside and the Na+ back outside
-> 3Na+ are pumped out for every 2K+ that are pumped in

Done: Everything is reset and the neuron is now at resting potential (-70mV)

Front 594

Okay...now an action potential is coming from the dendrite through, axon ending at the axon terminal. What happens next?

Back 594

neurotransmitters must cross the synapse between the axon terminal end and a different dendrite.

Front 595

Walk me through what happens at between the terminal axon and neighboring dendrite, given there was a sufficient action potential.

Back 595

1) Calcium (Ca+2) gates open:
-> action potential reaches end of axon
-> depolarization of membrane causes gated channels to open allowing Ca+2 to enter the cell

2) Synaptic vessels release neurotransmitter:
-> influx of Ca+2 into the terminal end causes synaptic vesicles to merge with presynaptic membrane
-> vesicles release neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft

3) Neurotransmitter binds with postsynaptic receptors (note: different proteins are used for different receptors)

4) The postsynaptic membrane is excited or inhibited:
-> depending on the kind of neurotransmitter and the kind of membrane receptors, there are two possible outcomes:

OUTCOME 1: If
->Na+ gates open at the new neuron
-> membrane is depolarized
-> = excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
-> the reaction continues down the axon

OUTCOME 2:
-> if K+ gates open,
->membrane become more POLARIZED (hyperpolarized)
-> = inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
-> become more difficult to generate a action potential on down the line.

5) The neurotransmitter is degraded and recycled.
-> neurotransmitter is broken down by enzymes

Common example:
-> neurotransmitter, acetylcholine is broken down by an enzyme
-> cholinesterase

Front 596

List some common neurotransmitters:

Back 596

1) Acetylcholine = commonly secreted at neuromuscular junctions, the gaps between motor neurons and muscle cells, where it stimulates the muscles to contract

2) Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. (from CNS)

3) GAmma aminobutyric acid (GABA) = inhibitory transmitter among neurons in the brain.

Front 597

What do each of these drugs do?
A. Curare
B. Botulism toxin
C. Anti-cholinesterase

Back 597

A. Curare:
-> blocks postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors
-> Result: paralysis

B. Botulism toxin:
-> prevents release of acetylcholine from the presynaptic membran
-> Result: paralysis

C. Anti-cholinesterase:
-> used as nerve gases and in the insecticide Parathion
-> inhibits the cholinesterase from breaking down acetycholine.
-> Result: no coordinated muscular contractions can take place

Front 598

What the nervous systems like in each of the following phylum?

A. Protozoa

Back 598

A. Protozoa (heterotrophic : like little animals)
-> no organized nervous system
-> single celled organisms may respond to
a. touch,
b. heat
c. light
d. chemicals

Front 599

What the nervous systems like in each of the following phylum?

Cnidaria

Back 599

B. Cnidaria (jellyfish, corals)
-> Nerve net = simple nervous system

Front 600

What the nervous systems like in each of the following phylum?
Annelida

Back 600

C. Annelida (Earthworms)
-> Primitive Central Nervous System:
-> ventral nerve cord
-> anterior brain of fused ganglia
-> definite nerve pathways lead from receptors to effectors.

Front 601

What the nervous systems like in each of the following phylum?

Arthropoda

Back 601

D. Arthropoda (roaches, bugs)
-> brains similar to annelida
-> BUT have more specialized sense organs are present
-> ie: compound or single eyes, tympanum for detecting sound

Front 602

1) Nerves are _____
2) Network of nerve fibers are called _______
3) Neuronal cell bodies often cluster together; these clusters are called ______

Back 602

1) bundles of axons
2) plexus
3) ganglia

Front 603

Neuronal cell bodies that are clusters are called ____in the periphery and _______in the CNS

Back 603

ganglia
nuclei

Front 604

The nervous system of humans and other vertebrates is broken down into two major systems:

Back 604

1) Peripheral nervous system
-> consists of sensory neurons that transmit impulses to the CNS and motor neurons that transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors.

2) Central Nervous system: consists of
-> Brain
-> spinal cord

Front 605

name the parts

Back 605

Front 606

WHich can be broken down further: CNS or PNS?

Break it down.

Back 606

PNS:
1) somatic nervous system (voluntary)
-> controls skeletal muscle

2) autonomic nervous system (involuntary)
-> controls activities of organs and various involuntary muscles, such as cardiac and smooth muscles

Front 607

Which can be broken down further somatic or autonomic NS?

Break it down

Back 607

Autonomic NS:
1) sympathetic
-> fight or flight

2) parasympathetic
-> tranquil functions, stimulating secretion of salive or digestion

Front 608

Break down the brain for me

Back 608

Part I: Forebrain (Prosencephalon)
A. Telencephalon
-> cerebral cortex
-> hippocampus
-> amygdala
B. Diencephalon
-> Thalamus
-> Hypothalamus

Part II: Midbrain (Mesensephalon)
-> relay center for visual and auditory impulses.
-> also important in motor control

Part III: Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
A. Cerebellum
B. Pons
C. Medulla

Front 609

The brainstem consists of:

Back 609

midbrain, pons, + medulla = brainstem

Front 610

Name the functions of each of the following:
1) Cerebral cortex
2) Corpus Callosum
3) Olfactory bulb
4) Thalamus
5) Hypothalamus
6) Midbrain
7) Cerebellum
8) pons
9) medulla
10) Hippocampus
11) Amygdala

Back 610

1) Cerebral cortex (TEX; E=mc^2) = top of brain, place of complex thinking

2) Corpus Callosum (plus, +,Sum): connect the right and left hemisphers

3) Olfactory bulb (Old Factory stinks): = relays smell

4) Thalamus (Hal and Amos are traffic directors): direct information for TEX (cerebral cortex) and spinal cord

5) Hypothalamus (Hypo and Llamas) My llama is hot, sexy, needs water, and is hungry

6) Midbrain = relay center for visual and audio impulses also helps out motor control (bells)

7) Cerebellum (Athletes wearing BELLS have a ton of motor skills) = motor skills, balance and kind eye coordination

8) pons (pond relaxing)= relay center between TEX and CereBELLum

9) medulla (tons of medals in my heart) = controls breathing, heart rate and gastrointestinal activity

10) Hippocampus (A hippo using a compass to remember his way) = seat of memory

11) Amygdala ( "A MIG is coming at me!!!") = controls fear

Front 611

True or false. The spinal cord can integrate motor responses without going directly to the brain first?

Back 611

True. Reflexes

Front 612

What are the main parts of the spinal cord? Describe each

Back 612

1) white matter: contain motor and sensory axons

2) grey matter: contains nerve bodies
3) dorsal horn: where sensory information enters

4) ventral horn: where all information exits

Front 613

What are your mnemonics for remember the disorder of the eye.

1) myopia
2) hyperopia
3) astigmatism
4) cataracts
5) glaucoma

Back 613

1) myopia: My Pee I can see up close = nearsightedness

2) hyperopia = Hyper pee can shoot far = farsightedness

3) astigmatism = the gmat has an irregular shape than the DAT = irregularly shaped cornea

4) cataracts = cadavers white eyes can't see = lens become opaque; light cannot enter the eye and blindness results

5) glaucoma = this glue in my eye is causing a lot of pressure = increase pressure in the eye due to the blocking of the outflow of the aqueous humor.

Front 614

What is shortened version of the path of sound?

Back 614

Sound enters
- external canal
- vibrates eardrum
- vibration moves through ossicles
a. mallet (malleus) -> anvil (incuds) -> stirrup (stapes)
- stapes vibrates oval window of cochlea
- creates pressure wave of the fluid inside

Front 615

Label the outer ear:
Label the Middle ear:

Back 615

-Pinna/auricle
- meatus/outer ear canal

Middle Ear:
- Eardrum (air pressure transmitted to auditory ossicles)
- ossicles: mallet, anvil, stirrup
(mechanical movement of the eardrum and convey it to the inner ear -> oval window
- Eustachian tube: (narrow tube connecting pharynx and middle ear. Equalizes air pressure differences between outer and middle ear
- Oval window (interface between middle and inner ear. transmits mechanical movement)

The Inner ear:
- Cochlea coil-like structure terminating in a window w/a flexible membrane at each end. Filled with cochlear fluid. converts mechanical movement into neural singals
- basilar membrane
- organ of corti ( responsible to transform membrane displacement into neural signals)
- Auditory nerve ( picks up the neural signals from the organ of Corti. -> sends signals to the brain where the information is processed and interpreted

Front 616

For humans does respiration mean?

What is the chemical equation for this process?

Back 616

it is the process of extracting stored energy from glucose to form ATP (from ADP and Pi).

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

If you replace energy with light you get the process of photosynthesis.

Front 617

Where does conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA and the Krebs cycle occur?

Back 617

In the mitochondrial matrix (most inner part of the mitochondria

Front 618

Where is the electron transport chains located?

Back 618

in the crista

Front 619

Where does glycolysis occur?

Back 619

in the cytoplasm

Front 620

NADH and FADH2 go through what process once they reach the electron transport chain?

Back 620

oxidative phosphorylation

Front 621

What are the three areas of the mitochondria that are the most important for understanding respiration?

Back 621

1) inner mitochondrial matrix
2)ETC
3) Outer mitochondrial membrane (outer compartment)

Front 622

Describe the oxidative phosphorylation process beginning with NADH and FADH2

Back 622

1) H+ accummulate in the outer compartment. T
-> Krebs Cycle produces 10 NADH and 2 FDH2 (glycolysis produces 2NADH)
-> NADH and FADH2 start from the mitochondria matrix and move through the electron transport chain.
-> Each NADH gives a proton and electron to the electron transport chain (cristae).
-> H+ is pumped from into the outer compartment (between cristae and the mitochondrial outer membrane)

2. A pH and electrical gradient across the crista membrane is created:
-> a bunch of H+ in outer membrane creates proton gradient (equivalent to pH gradient). This is kind of like water stored behind the dam.
-> an electric charge is also created.

3. ATP synthase generate ATP.
-> Channel proteins (ATP synthase) in the cristae allow the protons in the outer compartment to flow back into the matrix.
-> protons moving through the channel generate the energy for these channel proteins to produce ATP.
-> It is similar to how turbines in a dam generate electricity when water flows through them.

Front 623

What doe the electrons pass through in the ETC?

What happens in the end

Back 623

Electrons travel through ETC by electron carrying molecules called Cytochromes.

The terminal cytochrome, last carrier of these electrons, passes the electrons to the final electron acceptor O2. This makes water.

Front 624

Which one has more stored energy and which one produces more ATP?

NADH or FADH2

Back 624

NADH = higher energy state, produces 3ATP/NADH

FADH2 = Lower energy state,
produces 2ATP/FADH2

Front 625

All of the following processes produce ATP EXCEPT:
A. glycolysis
B. The Krebs cycle
C. lactate fermentation
D. oxidative phosphorylation
E. photophosphorylation

Back 625

C. lactate fermentation
the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, removes electrons from NADH to make NAD+. No ATP is generated by this step.

NAD+ is important to make so that your body can continue to make ATP through glycolysis in anaerobic conditions.

Front 626

What is the main purpose of oxygen during cellular respiration/

Back 626

The purpose of O2 is to accept the electrons at the end of the electron transport chain in oxidate phosphorylation

Front 627

All of the following proesses release CO2 EXCEPT:
the Krebs cycle
alcoholic fermentation
oxidative phosphorylation
the conversion of pyruvate to ethanol
the conversoion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA

Back 627

oxidative phosphorylation

Front 628

What is the value of alcoholic fermentation pathway?

Back 628

It replenishes NAD+ so that glycolysis can produce ATP

Front 629

What does acteyl CoA combine with to make _______. how many carbons to they each have?

Back 629

Acetyl CoA (2C) + oxaloacetic acid (4C) = citric acid (6C)

Front 630

How does citric acid get back to oxaloacetic acid?

Back 630

by giving 2CO2 during the citric acid cycle. Oxaloacetic acid has 4C.

Front 631

What happens when glucose supplies run low during respiration?

Back 631

THe body can use other sources
A. Carbohydrates: disaccharides can be broken down to monosaccharides, most of which can be converted to glucose and start the respiration process.

B. Fats: Fat molecles are stored in adipose tissue in the form of triglyceride. When needed, they are hydrolyzed by lipases to fatty acids and glycerol

- glycerol can be converted to PGAL then to Acetyl CoA

C. Proteins: last things to go. most amino acids can undergo transamination reactoin, in which they lose an amino group to form a a-keto acid. The carbon atoms of most amino acids are converted into acetyl CoA, pyruvate or one of the intermediates in the citric acid cycle.

Front 632

Under the Phylum Cnidaria give me two organism examples what their respiration type.

Back 632

Protozoa and Hydra
every cell is in contact with the external environment (H2O)
- respiratory gases can be exchanged between the cell and the environment by simple diffusion through the cell membrane

Front 633

Under the phylum Annelids what is there respiration like?

Back 633

Mucus secreted by cells on the external surface of the earthworm's body provides a moist surface for gaseous exchagne by diffusion.

The circulatory system:
- brings O2 to the cells and waste products such as CO2 back to the skin for excretion

Front 634

What is the arthropod repiratory system like? Give an example of an orgaism

Back 634

Grasshopper:
Open circulatory system:
- Tracheae = series of respirtory tubes
->branches reach almost everycell
- spiracles = are the surface openings to the tubes.
- no carrier of oxygen is needed

Front 635

In respiration for humans which is a passive process inhilation or exhalation?

Back 635

exhalation
- diaphram and intercostal muscles relax
-> decrease in volume
-> air pressure to increase
-> cuases the lungs to deflate, forcing air out of the alveoi

Front 636

What are the two muscle involved in respiration for humans?

Back 636

diaphram and intercostal muscles

Front 637

What is the respiratory center for humans? How does it do this?

Back 637

Medulla oblongata
- rhythimac discharges stimulate the intercostal muscles and/or the diaphram to conctract
- partial pressure of CO2 rises -> medulla stimulates an increase in the rate of ventilation

Front 638

Gas exchange in humans: What are the dense network of minute blood vessels called?

Back 638

pulmonary capillaries

Front 639

In gas exhange in humans gases move from regions of ____partial pressure to regions of _____partial pressure

Back 639

high to low

Front 640

What is the net reaction for glycolysis (starting and ending materials) and TCA

Back 640

Glycolysis:
1 glucose + 2 ATP + 4ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ -> 2pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 4ATP + 2H+ + 2H2O

2Acetycl CoA + 6NAD+ +2FAD + 2GDP + 2Pi + 4H2O ---> 4CO2 + 6NADH + 2FADH2 + 2GTP + 4H+ +2CoA

Front 641

How is NAD+ regnerated and why is this important?

Back 641

Two ways
1) Aerobic: In the ETC the NADH goes through oxidation -> NAD+

2) Anaerobic: In glycolysis through alchohol or lactic acid fermentation

This is important so that glycolysis can continue if oxygen is not present.

Front 642

What is an autotroph?

Back 642

any organism that manufactures its own organic molecules (glucose, amino acids, fats) from inorganic materials (CO2, H2O, mineral salts)

Front 643

True or false All green plants use photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen?

Back 643

True

Front 644

What is the general equation for photosynthesis?

Back 644

light + 6CO2 + 6H2O -> glucose + 6O2

Front 645

1) In plants where does photosynthesis take place?
2) Who usually goes through photosynthesis?

3) True or false: photosynthetic bacteria have chloroplasts so that they can go through photosynthesis?

Back 645

1) chloroplasts
2) alga and multicellular green plants
3) False: Bacteria lack chloroplasts but have membranes that function in a similar manner.

Front 646

Name the structure of a chloroplast:

Back 646

In green plants photosyntheis takes place in the chloroplast
Contains:
- chrlorphyll = green pigment (great at aborbing blue, red next)
- chloroplast are bound by two membranes
- Thylakoid membranes: They are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis

-Chlorophyll resides in thylakoid membranes

- Grana = columns of stacked thylakoid sacs

- stroma = fluid matrix of chloroplasts

Front 647

What is the chorlophyll comlexed with?

Back 647

- very complex containing over 100 atoms
- complexed with metal magnesium

Front 648

What happens when chlorphyll absorbs light?
At what wave lengths does chorolphyll absorb light?

3) What are the principle typs of chlorphyll?"

Back 648

- electrons in the ground state are boosted to an excited state and can be harnessed to drive the rxns of phosynthesis.

2) Red and blue wavelenghts

3) Chlorphyll a and cholophyll b

Front 649

What is a photosystem?

2) What are the two types of photosytems and which chlorphyll resides in what?

3) What names do chlorophyll a and b receive?

Back 649

1) photosystem = the light capturing unit of the thylakoid membrane.

2) two types:
Photosystem 1 has cholophyll a = P700

photosystem II has chlorphyll a = P680

Front 650

Photosynthesis is a reduction or oxidation? What gets it?

Back 650

CO2 gets reduced

Front 651

What two rxns can photosynthes be divided in ?

Where to both of these rxns take place?

Back 651

Light and dark

2) both in chloroplasts

Front 652

Breifly describe the light and dark rxns.

What is the other name for light and dark rxn?

Back 652

Light rxn:
- convert solar energy into chemical energy
-> in the form of ATP and NADPH
- other name = photolysis

Dark rxns:
-coupled to the light rxns
- they incoprorate CO2 into organic molecules in a process called CARBON FIXATION
- they are also callec reduced synthesis b/c carbohydrates are produced by reducing CO2.

Front 653

What is oxidative deamination?

Back 653

removes an ammonia molecule directly from an amino acid. A way to break down amino acids to use for ATP generation.

Ammonia is toxic substance in vertebrates.
- fish can excrete ammonia while insects and birds convert it into uric acid
- mammals convert it to urea for excretion

Front 654

Name the parts of noncyclic photophosphorylation.

Where does it begin?

Back 654

1) Photosystem II. Electrons trapped by P680 in PSII are energized by light.

2) Primary electron acceptor. Two energized electrons are passed to a molecule called the primary electron acceptor.

3) Electron transport chain: Electrons pass through an electron transport chain.
-> consists of proteins that pass e- from one carrier to the next
-> i.e Ferredoxin and cytochrome

4) Phosphorylation. As the two electrons move "down" the electron transport chain, they lose energy, pumping H+, from stroma to luma (making a charged gradient)
- The energy lost by the electrons as they pass along the e- transport chain is used to phosphorylate, on average, about 1.5 ATP molecules

5) Photosystem I. The electron transport chain terminates with PS I (with P700).
-> energized by light again

6) NADPH: The two electrons reduce NADP+ with H+ = NADPH, forming a energy-rich molecule

7) Photolysis: The two e- that originated in PS II is replaced when H2O is split into two e-, 2H+ and 1/2O2.
-Photolysis = decomposition (lysis) by light (photo).
-> A manganese-containing protein complex catalyzes the rxn.
-> the two e- from H2O replace the lost e- from PSII. One of the H+ provides the H in the NADPH.

Front 655

Where does the calving cycle get its fuel from?

Back 655

It gets it from the noncyclic cycle: ATP and NADPH
Remember the calvin cycle must turn 6 times. The steps below shows all 6 turn in one

1) Carboxylation: 6CO2 combine with 6RuBP to produce 12PGA
-> 6CO2 merges with RuBP (5 C)
-> Enzyme Rubisco catalyzes the merg of CO2 and RuBP.
-> This produces 12PGA

2) Reduction: 12ATP and 12NADPH are used to convert 12 PGA to 12 PGAL

3) Regeneration: 6 ATP are used to convert 10PGAL to 6 RuBP (So that it can be used to repeat the Calvin cycle by fixing 6CO2 again)

4) Carbohydrate synthesis: THe remaining two PGAL are used to form glucose, or some other type carbohydrate that stores energy.

Front 656

What is the purpose for C4 synthesis?

Back 656

To increase efficiency of photosynthesis by moving CO2 to bundle sheath cells.

- b/c rubisco can fixate both oxygen and CO2. fixating O2 does not yield the desired products.

Very little oxgyen reaches bundle sheath cells. That is why it is important to transport CO2 to those sheath cells so that CO2 and O2 do not compete as much. Rubisco can then focus on fixating just CO2

Front 657

What types of plants might specialize in C4 photosynthesis?

Back 657

Those found in the desert or dry places.

Examples aer: sugarcane and crab grass.

The stomata is open as little as possible so as not to let H2O escape.

Front 658

Walk me through C4 photosynthesis:

Back 658

1) CO3 enters the leaf
2) usually as CO2 is fixed by rubisco into PGA (straight to calvin cycle) But
-> the CO2 combines with PEP (catalyzed by PEP carboxylase)
-> makes OAA This is a 4 carbon = thus the name C3 photosynthsis

3) OAA convertes to malate
4) malate is shuttled to bundle sheath cells.
5) Malate converts to CO2 and pyruvate
6)pyruvate gets shuttled back to mesophyll cell
-> 1 ATP (ATP -> AMP)brakes down pyruvate back to PEP.
-> So that the process can repeat

7)The CO2 , in the mean time, rubisco begins the Calvin Cycle (C3 photosynthesis).

Front 659

True or false, both C4 and C3 photosynthesis takes place in a plant?

Back 659

True

C4 helps with CO2 fixation efficiency and C3 is the Calvin Cycle

Front 660

Which one of these is considered and "add-on" feature?

A. C3
B. C4
C. CAM
D both B and C
E. Both A and B

Back 660

D.

Front 661

Describe the steps of CAM photosynthesis:

Back 661

It is very similar to C4 photosynthesis

1) PEP still fixes (+) CO2 to (=) OAA
2) OAA convertes to malic acid (instead of malat)
3) Malic acid is shuttled to vacuole of the cell (not moved out of the cell to bundle sheath cells as in regular C4)
4) Stomata are open at night (reduces amount of H2O escaping). During the night
-> PEP carboxylase is active and malic acid accumulates in the cell's vacuole

5) Stomata close during day (the reverse in other plants). At this time, malic acid is shutted out of the vacuole and converted back to OAA (requiring 1 ATP to ADP), releasing CO2.
-> The CO2 is now fixed by rubisco, and the Calvin Cycle proceeds

Front 662

What the advantage for having CAM? What are some examples?

Back 662

Photosynthesis can occur during the day even when the Stomata are closed
-> When stomata are closed this reduces H2O loss.
-> Most often found in plants in the desert like cactus

Front 663

WHich of the following molecules contains the most energy?
A. ADP
B. ATP
C. NADPH
D. Glucose
E. Startch

Back 663

E. Starch

Here is the order in decreasing energy:
1) Starch (polymer of glucose)
2) Glucose (can provide 36 ATP)
3) NADPH (Can provide 3 ATP)
4) ATP
5) ADP

Front 664

What is the difference between cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation?

Back 664

Both have electrons that move along the electron chain
- both have electrons in chlorophyll that become excited
- Both produce ATP
- Both absorb light energy (photons)
- Only NADPH is produce in non cyclic photoposphorylation.

Front 665

WHat are the primary difference between cyclic electron flow and non cyclic electron flow?

Back 665

Cyclic:
- In PS i
- Chlorophyll a = P700
- e- are recycled to produce ATP they don't go to NADP+ to form NADPH

Non-Cyclic:
- in PS II
- Chlorophyll a = P680
- key pathway of photosynthesis
- produces NADPH to yield more ATP later = 3ATP/NADPH

Front 666

How do you unicellular organisms move? Give some examples first then describe what they do

Back 666

Phylum: Protozoans and Primitive Algae
Move by beating cilia or flagella.
Structure of cilia and flagella:
- similar structure through out all eukaryotic organisms
- Each has cylindrical stalk of 11 microtubules
- Flagella:
-> achieve movements by
A. Power stroke: a thrusting movement by sliding action of microtubules
B. Recovery Stroke: return of the cilium or flagellum to its original position

Amoeba:

Kingdom: Protista
Phylum: Tubulinea
Order: Tubulinida
Family: Amoebidae
Genus: Amoeba

motion: extend pseudopodia for locomotion; the advanced cell membrane extends forward, allowing the cell to move.

Front 667

Describe how the invertebrate, flatworms, go through locomotion

Back 667

- They have muscles within the body wall arranged in two antagonistic layers
-> longitudinal and circular
- muscles contract against the resistnace of the incompressible fluid within the animal's tissues = hydrostatic skeleton

Annelids also have a hydrostatic skeleton

Front 668

How do Annelids move?

Back 668

they have hydrostatic skeleton
- setae, bistles in the lower part of each segment anchor the earthworm temporarily in the earth while muscles push ahead.

Front 669

How do arthropods move?

Back 669

They have exoskeleton made of chitin
- composed of noncellular material secreted by the epidermis
- molting and deposition allow organism to grow

Front 670

What are the two main components of the skeleton?

Back 670

cartilage and bone

Cartilage: type of connective tissue
location examples: external ear, nose, wall so of the larynx and trachea, skeletal joints contain cartilage

Front 671

Wat are the two types of bone?

Back 671

Compact and spongy

Front 672

Describe the characteristics of compact bone:

Back 672

-dense bone that does not appear to have any cavities to the naked eye.
-Osteons = structural units of the bony matrix (Haversiarian systems)
- Haversarian canal = microscopic channels in the osteon that are surrounded by a number of concentric circles of bony matrix called lamellae

Front 673

WHat are the characteristics of spongy bone?

Back 673

- less dense
- interconnecting lattice of bony spicules (trabeculae)
- cavities in between spicules are filled with yellow and/or read bone marrow.
-Yellow marrow = inactive and infiltrated adipose tissue
- Red marrow = blood cell formation

Front 674

What is the difference between yellow and red bone marrow? Where are they both located?

Back 674

-Yellow marrow = inactive and infiltrated adipose tissue
- Red marrow = blood cell formation

In between the spicules of spongy bone

Front 675

What are the two types of cells found in bone?

Back 675

osteoblasts = build bone
osteoclasts = destroy bone (bone reabsorption)

Front 676

How are bones formed?

Back 676

1) endochondral ossification or
- cartilage is replaced by bone
- long bones primarily arise through endochondral ossification

2) intramembranous ossification
- mesenchymal (embryonic, undifferentiated) connective tissue is transformed into, and replaced by, bone.

Front 677

What is the basic framework of the body and what does it consists of?

Back 677

Axial skeleton
Consists of :
- skull
- vertebral column
- rib cage

Front 678

What is the appendicular skeleton?

Back 678

attaches to axial skeleton
- bones of the appendages
- pectoral and pelvic girdles

Front 679

How are bones held together?

Back 679

- Sutures = hold bones of the scull together
- ligaments = bone to bone connectors
- tendons = attach skeletal muscle to bone and bend the skeleton at movable joints

Front 680

What are movable joints?

Back 680

bones that do move relative to one another are held by movable joints,
-> strengthed and supported by ligaments

Front 681

What is the origin and insertion when talking about the skeleton?

2) What is the difference between extension and flexion?

Back 681

origin: the point of attachment of a muscle to a stationary bone

insertion: the point of attachement of a muscle to a bone that moves

2) extension: indicates straightening of a joint

flexion= to a bending of a joint

Front 682

Muscle tissue consists of bundles of specialized ______that are held together by ________ _________

Back 682

contractile fibers, connective tissue

Front 683

What are the three different types of muscle in animals?

Back 683

skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle

Front 684

Characterize each muscle types

Back 684

skeletal muscle:
- voluntary
- innervated by somatic nervous system
- mutlinucleated
- HAS striations
- Has lots of mitochondria

SMooth muscle:
- involuntary
- innervated by autonomic NS
- One central nucleus
- No striations
- examples: digestive tract, bladder, uterus, and blood vessels

cardiac muscle
- involuntary
- striated (b/c of actin and myosin filaments arranged in sarcomeres)
- NOT multi nucleated (generally only one or two nucei)

both smooth and cardia muscles are myogenic = capable of contracting without stimulation from nerve cells

Front 685

Name the different parts of a muscle fiber

Back 685

fiber
-> made of filaments called myofibrils
-> myofibrils divid in contractile units called sarcomeres
-> myofibrils are enveloped by a modified endoplasmic reticulum that stores calcium ions called the sarcoplasmic reticulum
-> sarcoplasm = cytoplasm of muscle fiber
-> sarcolema = the cell membrane. ( capable of creating an action potential
-> Sarcolema is connected to Transverse tubules (T system), oriented perpendiculalry to myofibrils.
- T System = provides channels for ion flow through the muscle fibers
-> can also generate action potential

Front 686

WHat is the sarcomere composed of?

Back 686

- thick and thin filaments
THin filaments = chains of actin molecules
THick filaments = bundles of myosin molecules.

Front 687

What are the
Z lines
M line
I band
H zone
A band

Back 687

Z lines: define the boundaries of a single sarcomere and anchor the thin filaments

M line: runs down the cneter of the sarcomere

I band: is the region containing thin filaments only.

H zone: the region containing thick filaments only

A band: spans the entire length of the thick filaments and any overlapping portions of the thin filaments

Front 688

During contraction which are reduced in size and which are not

Back 688

A band = not reduced
H zone and I band = are reduced

Front 689

Once an action potential is generated how is conducted?

Back 689

the action potential is conducted along:
- sacrolemma
- T System
- and into the interior of the muscle fiber

-> this causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions into the sacroplasm

- calcium ions intiate the contraction of the sarcomere.

- actin and myosin slide past each other and the sarcomere contracts

Front 690

True or False: the strength of a contraction of a single muscle fiber can be increased?

Back 690

False

Front 691

How can the strength of a contraction be increased?

Back 691

recruit more muscle fibers

Front 692

What is a simple twitch?
What three periods does it go through?

Back 692

is the response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above the threshold stimulus

three periods:
1) latent period:
- the time between stimulation and the onset of contraction

2) contraction period:
- during this time lag, the action potential spreads along the sarcolemma and Ca2+ ions are released.

3) relaxation period-
- the muscle is unresponsive to stimulus =
-> this is known as the absolute refractory period

Front 693

WHat is temporal summation and tetanus?

Back 693

summation- muscles cannot fully relax
- contractoins begin to cmpbine,
becoming stronger and more prolonged

Tetanus - when muscle cannot relax and is stronger than a simple twitch of a single fiber

Front 694

WHat is the primary source of energy for muscle contraction?f

Back 694

ATP

Front 695

What is creatine and arginine phospate?

Back 695

A way for animals to temporarily store energy

Front 696

WHat is myoglobin?

Back 696

is a hemoglobin-like protein found in muscle tissue
- high oxygen affinity and maintains the oxygen supply in muscle by binding to oxygen tightly

Front 697

During muscle contractions which regions decrease in length?

Back 697

sarcomere,
H and I

Front 698

1) THick filament is
2) thin fiilament is

describe each

Back 698

1) myosin- each has a protruding head at one end

2) actin arranged in a double helix
- on helix are troponin and tropomyosin molecules that cover special binding sites on the actin

Front 699

What make up a myofibril and how are they arranged?

Back 699

Myobfibril = actin and myosin filaments are parallel and side by side.

Front 700

WHat gives skeletal muscle its striated appearance?

Back 700

the overlapping filaments of actin (thin) and myosin (thick)

Front 701

What does heterotrophic mean?

Back 701

Animals that are unable to synthesis their own nutrients.

Front 702

How do cnidarians digest their foods?

Back 702

Use intra and extracellular digestion
1) tentacles bring food to mouth and release particles into a cup-like sac
2) endodermal cells secreate enzymes into cavity
3) once food is in small fragments gastrodermal cells engulf the nutrients and digestion is completed intracellulry
4) any extra food is expelled out the mouth

Front 703

how to annelids digest their food?
List the path of food in order

Back 703

1) one-way digestive tract with mouth and anus
2) specialized parts
- mouth
- pharynx
- esophagus
- crop (to store the food)
- gizzard (to grind food)
- intestine
- anus

3) soluble food passes, by diffusion, through the walls of the small intestine into the blood.

Front 704

How do arthropods digesti their food? List the path in order

Back 704

Mouth-
- salivary glands
- esophagus
- crop
- gizzard
- digestive glands
- stomach
- large intestines
- rectum
- anus

Front 705

What is the bath way for food digestion in humans?

Back 705

- mouth
- pharynx
- esophagus
- stomach
- small intestine
- large intestine
- anus

Front 706

What are the accessory organs for digestion in humanss?

Back 706

salivary glands
pancreas
liver
gall bladder

Front 707

Which enzyme is located in the mouth and what does it break down?f

Back 707

salivary amylase (ptyalin):
hydrolyzes starch (carbohydrates) to maltose (a disaccharide)

Front 708

What are the walls of the stomach lined by? THen describe the rest of the stomach from when the foood enters the mouth to when it leaves the stomach

Back 708

Lined by thick gastric mucosa
-> contain glands
-> glands produce mucus that protects stomach lining from the harshly acidic juices (pH=2)
-> they also secrete pepsin
-> Pepsin = brakes down proteins
-> chyme = partially digested food
-> chyme passes into the first segment of the small intestine, the duodenum through pylori sphincter

Front 709

What are the three divisions of the small intestine?

Back 709

duodenum ( I am going to sing a duo with my small intestine then...)

jejunum, (I am going to boogie with the jedi at cafe jejunum, then lastly )

ileum (We are going to speak in high voices with h-"ileum"

Front 710

Describe the characterisics of the the small intestine

Back 710

- great for absorption of neutrients
- Villi- finger like projections that contain capillaries and lacteals (vessels of the lymphatic system)
- Amino acids and monosaccharides pass through villi wall into the capillary system.
- Large fatty acids and glycerol pass into lacteals and are converted into fats (3 fatty acid + glycerol)

Front 711

What types of nutrients are actively absorbed in the small intestine?

Back 711

glucose and amino acids

Front 712

Where does most of the digestion occur in the small intestine and why?

Back 712

occurs in duodenum b/c that is where the secreations of the intestinal glands, pancreas, liver and gall bladder mix together with the acidic chyme from the stomach.

Front 713

What enzymes do does the small intestine secrete and what is its purpose?

Back 713

lipases = fat digestion
aminopeptidases = protein digestion
disaccharidases = carbohydrate digestion (maltose, lactose, sucrose)
lactase = brakes down lactose (milke sugar)

Front 714

What is the role of the pancrease?

Back 714

produces enzynmes:
amylase = carbohydrate breakdown
- trypsin = protein dig.
- lipase = fit digestion

- Also secreates bicarbonate rich juice that neutralizes the acidic chyme arriving from the stomach
- enzymes work better when there is a high pH

Front 715

What is the purpose of the large intestine?

Back 715

Absorption of salts and any water not absorbed by the small intestine

Front 716

What is the purpose of the liver in digestion?

Back 716

produces bile , which is stored in the gall bladder
- bile gets released in the small intestine
- Bile has no enzymes; it emulsifies fats, breaking down large globules into small droplets

In the absents of bile, fats cannot be digested

Front 717

In digestion what brakes down proteins?

Back 717

pepsin (in stomach)
aminopeptidase (in SI)
trypsin (in Pancreas)

Front 718

In digestion what breaks down carbs and sugars?

Back 718

salivary amylase (mouth)
disaccahridase (SI)
lactase (SI)
amylase (pancreas)

Front 719

In digeston what breaks down fats?

Back 719

lipases (SI)
lipase (Pancreas)
Bile (liver -> gall bladder)

Front 720

Is fungus an autotroph or a heteortroph?

Back 720

Fungus is a heterotroph. It secreates enzymes that breaks down nutrients into smaller simpler molecules that the fungus can use for energy or synthesis into larger molecules.

An example are rhizoids of bread mold, that live off dead organic material. They secrete enzymes to the external environment

Front 721

WHat is the closest plant to actual ingestion?

Back 721

venus flytrap
- It still uses photosynthesis but uses insects as a nitrate source, as the flytrap grows in nitrogen-poor soils.

Front 722

True or false, most of the absorption happens in the stomach?

Back 722

False, happens in the small intestine.

Front 723

Where does protein digestion occur?

Back 723

Stomach (pepsin) and small intestine (aminopeptidase)

Front 724

What enzymes break down proteins?

Back 724

Pepsin (stomach)
protease like aminopeptidase (small intestine)
trypsin and chymotripsin (Pancreas)

Front 725

The intestinal capillaries transport nutrients from the intestines to the
A. large INtestine
B. liver
C. kidney
D. heart

Back 725

Intestinal capillaries trasnport amino acids and monosaccharides to the liver where initial processing of many nutrients begins.

Front 726

What are the three hormones involved with digestion?

Back 726

1) Gastrin: is produced by cels in the stomach linining when foode reaches the stomach or when teh nervou system, through smell or sight, senses the availability of food. Gastrin enters the blood stream and stimulates other cells of the stomach to produce gastric juices.

2. Secretin: producef by the cells lining the duodenum when food enters.
- secretin stimultes the pancreas to produce bicarbonate which, when deposited intot he small intestine, neutralizes the acidity of the cyme

3. CHoleocystokinin = produced by the small intestine to stimulate the gallbladder to release bile and the pancreas to release its enzymes

Front 727

How does excretion work with the phylums protozoa and cnidarians

Back 727

- they are always in contact with their external environment
- wastes like ammonia and carbon dioxide can exit cells by simple diffusion (passive)

- Some protozoa, like paramecium, possess a contractile vacuole- an organell specialized for water excretion by active transport.

Front 728

How does excretion work in annelids?

Back 728

- CO2 excretion occurs directly through the moist skin
- two paris of nephridia in each body segment excrete water, mineral salts, and nitrogenous wastes in the form of urea

Front 729

How does excretion work in arthropods?

Back 729

-CO2 is released through tubes called traceae, opening are spiracles.
- Nitrogenous wastes are excreted in the form of solid uric acid crystals
- Malpighian tubules = where mineral salts and uric acid are stored and then transported to the intestine to be expelled with the solid wastes of digestion.

Front 730

What are the principal organs of excretion in humans?

Back 730

lungs, liver, skin, kidneys

Lungs: CO2 leves
Skin: excrete water, salts and small amount of urea
liver: processes nitrogenous wasts, blood pigment wastes and other chemicals.
- Urea is produced by the deamination of amino acids in the liver and diffuses into the blood for ultimate excretion in the kindeys.

Front 731

How are bile salts and blood pigments excreted?

Back 731

They excreted as bile andn pass out with the feces

Front 732

What are the main function of the kidneys?

Back 732

- maintain osmolarity of the blood
- excrete numerous waste products and toxic chemicals
- conserve glucose, salt and water

Front 733

Identify numbers
1-17

Back 733

1.Renal pyramid
2.Interlobar artery
3.Renal artery
4.Renal vein
5.Renal hilum
6.Renal pelvis
7.Ureter
8.Minor calyx
9.Renal capsule
10.Inferior renal capsule
11.Superior renal capsule
12.Interlobar vein
13.Nephron
14.Minor calyx
15.Major calyx
16.Renal papilla
17.Renal column

Front 734

WHat are the three regions of the kidney?

Back 734

Going from outside of kidney in

outer cortex
inner medulla
renal pelvis

Front 735

What does the neprhon consist of?

Back 735

Bowman's capsule
-glomerulus
-the proximal convoluted tubule
- descending loop
- loop of Henly
- ascending loop
- distal convoluted tubule
- collecting duct

Front 736

Where is the loop of Henle, convoluted tubules, and bowmans capsule positioned in the kidney?

Back 736

Loop of Henle runes through teh medulla

conv. tubules and bowmans capsule are in the cortex

Front 737

What is most of the nephron surrounded by?

Back 737

surrounded by a complex peritubular capillary network to facilitate reabsorption of amino acids, glucose, salts and water.

Front 738

WHat are the three processes that lead to urine formation?

Back 738

1) Filtration:
- blood goes through glomerulus and Boman's capsule
- fluid and small solutes enter nephron called filtrate
- Filtrate = isotonic with blood plasma
- Passive process

2) secretion
- secretes: acids, bases, ions (K+), and posophate ions
- both passive and active process
- Materials are secreted from the peritubular capillaries into the nephron tubule.

3) Reabsorption:
- Essential substances (glucose, salts, amino acids) and water are reabsorbed from the filtrate and returned to the blood.
- Primarily occurs in proximal conv. tubule = and is ACTIVE PROCESS
- movement of these particles is accompanied by water = a PASSIVE PROCESS
- Results in concentrated urine, which is hypertonic to the blood

Front 739

How should you think of the glomerulus?

Back 739

imagine it like a colander for spaghetti:
- small molecules will be allowed to pass (glucose can be reabsorbed later)
- large molecules like blood and proteins will not go through

=> if blood and proteins are found in the urine then there is a problem with the glomerulus.

Front 740

What is the main function of kidneys?

Back 740

regulate salt and water concentration in the blood.

Front 741

Where does the reabsorption of Na+ Cl- happen and at which region of the kidney? State if passive diffusion or active transport

Back 741

Cortex region:
PCT = active trans

Inner Medulla:
close to bottom of loop of henle on the ascent. = passive

Outer medulla (middle)
Ascending loop of Henle approaching DCT = Active

Front 742

Where does the reabsorption of water happen and at which region of the kidney? State if passive diffusion or active transport

Back 742

Happens at all parts = passive diffusion

Front 743

Where where does the reabsorption of amino acids, vitamins, and glucose occur? Active or passive?

Back 743

Cortex region: PCT = Active Transport

Front 744

What type of solution are these blood cells in? Define it

Back 744

This does not just apply to blood cells:

A hypertonic solution is one having a larger concentration of a substance OUTSIDE than is found INSIDE the cells themselves

Front 745

What is happening?

Back 745

The concentration is higher INSIDE the cell/membrane than OUTSIDE. So water will rush in.

Front 746

WHat is the absorption and excretion of water and dissolved substances (solutes) so that proper balance ( and osmotic pressure) is maintained between the organism and its surroundings?

Back 746

osmoregulation

Front 747

If something is hypo-osmotic to the environment then then means?

If something is hyper-osmotic to the environment then that means?

Back 747

hypo-osmotic = the solute concentration is less inside the organism than outside. = marine fish

2) the concentration is greater inside the organism than outside. = freshwater fish

Front 748

How is a simple reflex controlled? Do we see this more in higher or lower animals?

Back 748

A simple reflex
- controlled at the spinal cord by two neuron pathway from the receptor (afferent neuron) and to the motor (efferent neuron).
- The efferent nerve innvervates the effector, e.g. a muscle or gland.

Examples
moving towards and finding food
moving away and sheltering from predators
moving towards and finding a mate

Front 749

The "startle response" is an example of what type of animal behavior?

Give the definition

Back 749

A complex reflex in higher more complex organisms using the brain stem or even the cerebrum.

- The startle response involves interaction of many neurons, a system termed the reticular activating system.

Front 750

What are fixed-action patterns?
Give examples

Back 750

are complex, coordinated, innate behavioral responses to specific patterns of stimulation in the environment.
- releaser = stimulus that elicits the behavior
- B/c they are innate they are NOT likely to be modified by learning
- The partic. stimuli that trigger a fixed-action pattern are more readily modified, provided certain cues or elements of the stimuli are maintained.

Examples:
-Birds retrieving their eggs. Some triggers are more specific with specific eggs for that species

- Characteristic movements made by animals that herd or flock together, such as swimming of fish, and the flying actions of locusts

Front 751

What are examples of behavior cycles?

Back 751

Circadian rhythms: Daily cycles of eating, maintained by most animals, provide a good example of cycles with both INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL control

Front 752

How can environmental rhythms determine patterns of behavior?

Back 752

Periodic environmental stimuli can do this. e.g. a human example of this is the response to a traffic light. Just as environmental stimuli influence many naturally occuring biological rhythms, biological factors influence behavior governed by periodic env. stimuli.

Front 753

What is habituation?'

What happens if the stimulus is no longer regularly applied?

Back 753

a simple learning pattern, involving the suppression of the normal startle responses to stimuli.

- Repeated stimulation will result in decreased responsiveness to that stimulus.

= spontaneous recovery: the response tends to recover over time.

Front 754

Pavlovian conditioning is also known as?

Back 754

conditioned reflex

Front 755

What is the difference between classic conditioning and psuedoconditioning?

Back 755

We must be careful how we want to classiclly condition with a neutral stimulus. For example mere picking up the bell can trigger the dog salivating before it the bell is rung.

Front 756

What is operant or instrumental conditioning?

What are the to reinforcing categories?

Back 756

involves the conditioning responses to stimuli with the use of reward or reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement: rewarding to do something

Negative reinforcement: rewarding NOT to do something. e.g. the bird was rewarded for not pressing the yellow button

Front 757

What is the habit family hierarchy?

Back 757

A chicken may respond to a light in many ways:
1) if one response is particullarily rewarded the higher probability of repeating that behavior increases.

Reward strengthens a specific behavioral response and raises its order in the hierarchy.

2) Punishment weakens a specific behavioral response and lower its order in the hierarchy.

Front 758

WHat is extinction in relation to animal behavior?

Back 758

the gradual elimination of conditioned responses in the absence of reinforcement, i.e. the unlearning of a response pattern.

Front 759

How does extinction happen in instrumental and operant conditioning?

2) How does extinction occur in classic conditioning?

3) The recovery of a conditioned response after extinction is called:

Back 759

1) In instrumental and operant cond. extinction occurs when the response is diminished and finally eliminated in the absence of reinforcement.

2) in classical cond. extinction occurs when the US is removed or was never sufficiently paired with the Conditioned Stimulus (CS).

3) spontaneous recovery

Front 760

What is stimulus generalization?
2) stimulus discrimination?
3) Stimulus generalization gradient?

Back 760

1) stimulus generalization: is the ability of a conditioned organism to respond to stimuli which are similar, but not identical, to the original conditioned stimulus. (i.e. a bird may react to a sound out 1000Hz or at 900 Hz, which are close) = the response is general to the similar stimuli

2) stimulus discriminiation = involves the ability of the learning organism to differentially respond to slightly different stimuli. ie. if rewars are given to only a very narrow range of sound (ie 990Hz to 1010Hz) but not to stimuli outside this range, the organism will also learn not to respond to stimuli that are very different in tone.

3) a Stimulus generalization gradient: is est. after the organism has been cond., whereby stimuli further and further away from the original cond. stimulus elicit responses with decreasing magnitude

Front 761

WHat is critical period in animal behavior?

Back 761

Critical periods are specific time periods during an animal's early development when it is physiologically able to develojp specific behavior paterns.

- the same with visual critical period

I.. e a childs binocular vision develops between 3 and 8 moths.

Or a specific type of finch must hear an adult sing before it can be sexually mature

Front 762

What are the three general type of behavioral displays?

Back 762

1) Reproductive displays: Have signals for mating.
2) Agonistic displays: when a dog wags its tail and shows that it is happy.
Or antagonistic : when a dog raises its body and face is straight

3) Dancing, visual etc.:

Front 763

How do chemicals play a role in animal communication?

Back 763

olfactory senses

Many animal secrete pheromones that influence the behavior of other members of the same species.

Front 764

What are the two classifications of pheromones?

Back 764

1) releaser pheromones:
- trigger a response in the recipient. Some males can respond to very small excretions over a couple of miles away.
- sex attractant pheremones:
- Other releaser pheromones are secreted as alarm and toxic defense substances.


2) Primer pheromones:
- produce long term behavioral and physiological alteration in recipient animals.
- i.e. pheromones from male mice may affect the estrous cycles of females
- Primer pheromones have also been known to limit sexual reproduction in areas of high animal density.
- Social aspects: ants, bees and termites use primer pheromones to regulate role determination and reproductive capacities.

Front 765

THe cocktail party effect is observed when an individual hears and responds to their name amidst many distractions. This automatic response is coordinated by the ...

Back 765

The reticular activating system (RAS) is an area of the brain (including the reticular formation and its connections) responsible for regulating arousal and sleep-wake transitions, or when HEARING ONE'S NAME.

Front 766

What is ecology?

An organisms environment contains two compoenents :

Back 766

the study of interactions of organisms and their environment.

2) abiotic = physical env. (including climate, temp, aval. light and water, local topology)

biotic = living env. (all living things that directly or indirectly influence the life of the organism, inluding the relat. that exist between organisms

Front 767

Population is:

species is:

community is:

biotic community is:

Ecosystem is;

Back 767

a group of organisms of the same species living together in a given location. (i.e. flies in a barn,

2) species is: any group of similar organisms that re capable of reproducing.

3) community: populations of different plants and animal species interacting with each other in a given environment.

4) biotic community: used to include only the populations and NOT their physical environment.

5) ecosystem: includes the community and the environment (usually contains all 5 kingdoms)

Front 768

A lawn contains dandelions, grasses, mushrooms, earthworms, nematodes and bacteria...this is an example of what?

Back 768

ecosystem

Front 769

A biosphere is...

Back 769

includes all portions of the planet which support life:
the atmosphere
- the lithosphere (rock and soil surface)
- the hydrosphere (the oceans)

Front 770

What is the major component of the internal environment of all living things?

2) What is the ultimate source of energy for all organisms?

Back 770

1) water

2) sunlight

Front 771

What is the photic zone?

2) what is the aphotic zone?

Back 771

in water, the top layer through which light can penetrate, is where all aquatic photosynthetic activity takes place.

2) aphotic zone : only animal life and other heterotrophic life exist.

Front 772

How can the substratum affect the nature of plant and animal life?

Back 772

substratum (soil and rock)
A. Acidity (pH): Rhododendrons and pines like acid soil. Acid rain may lower the pH too much.

B. Texture: the texture of soil and its clay content determine the water holding capacity of the soil. i.e. willow require moist soil..
-> most plants grow well in LOAMS, which contain high percentages of each type of soil

C. Minerals: nitrates and phosphates affect the type of vegetation that can be supported.

D. Humus quantity is determined by the amount of decaying plant and animal life in the soil

Front 773

omnivores are

Back 773

animals which eat both plant and animals.

Front 774

What is an obligatory relationship?

Back 774

one or both organisms cannot survive with out the other.

Front 775

define niche and habitat

Back 775

niche- defines the functional role of an organism in its ecosystem.

habitat - the physical place where an organism lives

Front 776

Each are examples of what?
1) Remora and Shark
2) Tick bird and rhinoceros
3) barnacle and whale
4) protozoa and termites
5) Intestinal bacteria in humans
6) Worms and animals
7) virus

Back 776

1) Remora and Shark = commensalism
2) Tick bird and rhinoceros = mutualism
3) barnacle and whale = commensalism
4) protozoa and termites = mutualism
5) Intestinal bacteria in humans= mutualism
6) Worms and animals = parasitism
7) virus = parasitism

Front 777

What type of relationship does lichen have between fungus and algae

Back 777

Mutualism
-green algae provide food for itself and for fungus through photosynthesis
- meshes of fungal threads support the algae and conserve water.
-> fungus also provides carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wasts for the algae, all of which are neeed for photosynthesis and protein synthesis.

Front 778

Why are lichens significant?

Back 778

pioneer organisms in the order of ecological succession on bare rock

Front 779

What type of relationship to protozoa and termites have? ANd how does it work out?

Back 779

mutualism
Termites chew and ingest wood but are unable to digest the cellulose
- protozoa can do that for them

Front 780

What is the difference between ectoparasites and endoparasites?

Back 780

ecto = parasitism on the outside
endo = parasitism on the inside

Front 781

Most bacteria are either ______ or ________

Back 781

chemosynthetic or saprophytic (bacteria of dekay

Front 782

True or false: the more dangerous the parasite the more chance it will survive?

Back 782

False, if the parasite's host dies then so does the parasite

Front 783

Does predation refer to both herbivores and carnivores?

Back 783

Yes. Because predators feed on other living organisms

Front 784

What is saprophytism and who are some examples?

Back 784

Saprophytes include those protists and fungi that decompose (digest) dead organic matter externally and absorb the nutrients;
-> they are very vital to the ecosystem
-> Examples: mold, mushrooms, bacteria of decay and slime molds

Front 785

What is an example of just scavenger and what is an example of both scavenger and predator?

Back 785

just scavenger = vulture
both = snapping turtle

Front 786

Interaction among animals. What two types of forces influence the relationships between individuals within a species?

Back 786

disruptive and cohesive forces
disruptive: competition
cohesive: reproduction, protection from predators, and destructive weather

Front 787

What is the difference between hyperosmotic and hypoosmotic. Given an example of an organism in each

Back 787

hyperosmotic = an environment that causes an organism to lose water and take in salt.

They lose water because water will want to go to an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

Example: Saltwater fish

Hypoosmotic = an organism that lives in an environment which causes intake of water and excess loss of salt

organism is has an innate concentration of salt inside than its environment. According to osmosis water will want to flow from low to high concentrations, which causes the fish to have a huge intake of water. Also by the general concentration definition, salt will want to travel to an area of high concentration to low concentration. Which causes the fish to lose excessive salts.

Example: freshwater fish

Front 788

What doe insects excrete and why?

Back 788

they excrete slid uric crystals in order to conserve water

Front 789

What is desiccation?

Back 789

drying up

camels and other desert animals have mechanisms to avoid desiccation

Front 790

What is the scientific term for cold-blooded and warm - blooded?

Back 790

cold blooded = poikilothermic
warm blooded = hemoeothermic

Front 791

Who does the majority of material recycling for the world?

Back 791

scavengers and decomposers (saprophytes such as bacteria and fungi)

Front 792

There are 5 major material recycling mechanisms that are important to all life what are they

Back 792

1) hydrologic cycle (water cycle)
2) Carbon cycle= carbon is required for the building of all organic compounds
3) Nitrogen cycle = Nitrogen is required for the manufacture of all amino and nucleic acids
4) Phosphorus cycle = Phosphorus is required for all ATP production (Calcium and Magnesium serve similar purposes)

5) Oxygen cycle = obvious!!

Front 793

True or false: elemental nitrogen (N2) most frequently used by organisms

Back 793

False, elemental nitrogen is inert (unusable) to most orgnaisms

Front 794

What is nitrogen fixation

Back 794

Nitrogen fixation is a process, biological, abiotic, or synthetic by which nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia (NH3)

Front 795

What are the four types of bacteria involved in the nitrogen cycle?

Back 795

decay: proteins from plants and animals to -> ammonia NH3
nitrifying: nitrites, NO2 -> Nitrates, NO3-
denitrifying: convert NO3- back to N2

nitrogen-fixing: N2 -> NO3- by lightning and UV radiation
N2 -> NH4+ by prokaryotes (in soil and root modules)

Front 796

What is the nitrogen cycle starting with N2

Back 796

N2 -> [by N fixing] -> NO3- -> [plants absorb -> protein synthesis -> animals eat plants -> protein synthesis] -> [animal dies or poops, releasing proteins] -> Decay Bacteria comes in, converts protein to NH3, ammonia. From here it can go two ways

Way 1) denitrifying bacteria convert NH3 -> N2

Way 2) nitrifying bacteria convert NH3 -> Nitrites, NO2 -> then to NO3-

Front 797

The abiotic factors of an ecosystem are

Back 797

physical environment: rainfall, soil conditions, temperature, shade etc.

Front 798

What is a climax community?

Back 798

In ecology, a climax community, or climatic climax community, is a biological community of plants and animals which, through the process of ecological succession — the development of vegetation in an area over time — has reached a steady state. This equilibrium occurs because the climax community is composed of species best adapted to average conditions in that area. The term is sometimes also applied in soil development.

Front 799

What is ecological succession?

Back 799

is the orderly process by which one biotic community replaces or succeeds another until a climax community is established.

Front 800

Where can the evolutionary origins of plants be traced to?

Back 800

the seas

Front 801

Each geographic region is inhabited by a distinct community called a ______ existing in the major climate areas.

Back 801

biome

Front 802

How are land biomes and characterized and named according to?

why is this chosen as the basis for characterizing a terrestrial geographic region

Back 802

the climax vegetation of the region

b/c the stable climax vegetation determines the climax animal population. No vegetation = no climax animal population

Front 803

What biome is this?

Low rainfall
- no shelter for herbivores from carnivores
- bison, antelope, cattle, zebra

Back 803

Grasslands

Front 804

What biome is this?
- moderate rainfall (2nd to rainforest)
- all four seasons
- beech, maple, oaks, and willows
- bambi, fox, woodchuck, squirrel
- Northeast and Central-Eastern United States
- Bambi's "Maine" hang out

Back 804

Temperate Deciduous Forest
: Bambi "Decided" to hang out here because of the Four Season's resort. He kicks it with his squirrel, fox friends, and Alvin and the Chipmunks.

Front 805

- Cold, dry,
- fir, pine, spruce trees
- needles
- Extreme North US and Southern Canada

Back 805

Temperate Coniferous Forest Biome

Front 806

- little rainfall
- long cold winters
- single coniferous tree - spruce
- moss and lichens
- moose, black bear, wolf
- Canada and Russia

Back 806

Taiga

Front 807

- treeless
- very short summer
- short growing season
- lichens, moss, polar bears, musk oxen

Back 807

tundra

Front 808

Name the zones of the marine biome

Back 808

Front 809

Which marine zone would you find alga, sponges, clams, snails, and starfish?

Back 809

intertidal zone

Front 810

Which marine zone wold you find algae, crabs and many different species of fish?

Back 810

littoral zone

Front 811

Which zone is the sunlit layer and contains plankton, nekton and active swimmers such as fish, sharks, or whales

And what is the chief autotroph in this zone?

Back 811

photic zone

diaitom, an algae, is the chief autotroph

Front 812

What is the marine zone that receives no light

Back 812

aphotic zone

Front 813

What is plant pressure called in plants?

Back 813

turgor ( like tug-of-war of water up the plants :))

Front 814

What is the primary difference between a community and ecosystem

Back 814

community = includes only the populations of living organisms in an environment

ecosystem = includes non-living, abiotic (physical), environment. q

Front 815

All of the following are examples of communities EXCEPT
a. the birds, fish, invertebrates, and insects living on seashore
B. the microbes living in a drop of water
C. the black bears living in yosemite
D. the fish, mammals, and plankton living in the Pacific Ocean

Back 815

C. the black bears in yosemite is a population

Remember, community includes all populations of living organisms in an environment

microbes are plural here, indicating more than one microbe

Front 816

What are two differences between aphotic and photic zones?

Back 816

aphotic = no light
Photic = light

Aphotic = only has heterotrophs
Photic = supports boh autotrophes and heterotrophs

Front 817

WHat is the proper definition of species?

Back 817

Animal that can interbreed and have fertile offspring.

Front 818

What are the 5 modern kingdoms

Back 818

Monera
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Anamilia

Front 819

What of the 5 modern kingdoms are eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

Back 819

Prokaryotes = Monera
Eukaryotes =
- Protista
- Fungi
- Plantae
- Animilia

Front 820

What are the distinguishing features of the Kingdom Protista?
- Structure
- Reproduction
- Examples

Back 820

Eukaryote:
STRUCTURE:
- Microscopic
- mostly unicellular
- 9 + 2 cilia or flagella

REPRODUCTION
- asexual
- no embryo

EXAMPLES:
- amoeba
- parameda
- diatoms
- slime molds

Front 821

What are the two distinct groups within Monera?

Back 821

eubacteria (true bacteria)
archaebacteria

Front 822

How cold you distinguish a archaebacteria?

Back 822

Survive in extreme harsh conditions

1) THeir cel walls lack peptidoglycans
2) THeir ribosomes are more similar to ribosomes of eukaryotes than to those of eubacteria
3) THeir plasma membranes contain lipids different from all other organisms

Front 823

What are the three groups of archaebacteria?

Back 823

1) Methanogens
2) Extreme halophiles ("salt lovers:)
3) Thermoacidophiles ("heat and acid lovers)- they are chemoautotrophs using H2S as source of energy

Front 824

What are cyanobacteria and tell me about them

Back 824

- Blue-Green Algae
- Prokaryote (Bacteria)
- use Photosynthesis
- have Phycobilins = accessory pigments
- Heterocysts that produce nitrogen-fixing enzymes

Front 825

WHat are chemosynthetic bacteria?

Back 825

Autotrophs
- Nitrifying bacteria = NO2 -> NO3-

Front 826

What are nitrogen fixing bactria?

Back 826

Heterotrophs that fix nitrogen
- Have mutualistic relationship with plants that need nitrogen (i.e. venus fly trap)
- Nodules = places nitrogen-fixing bacteria live on plants

Front 827

What are spirochetes?

Back 827

are coiled bacteria that move with a corkscrew motion. Their flagella are internal

Front 828

What are the three shapes bacteria can be classified into?

Back 828

cocci = spherical
bacilli = rod shaped
spirilla = spirals

Front 829

What are the distinguishing features of the Kingdom Fungi?
- STRUCTURE
- REPRODUCTION
- EXAMPLES

Back 829

- STRUCTURE:
- multicellular
- no cilia or flagella

- REPRODUCTION
- Haploid or dikaryotic;
- haploid spores

- EXAMPLES:
- Yeasts,
- Molds
- Mushrooms

Front 830

What are the distinguishing features of the Kingdom Plantae?
- STRUCTURE
- REPRODUCTION
- EXAMPLES

Back 830

- STRUCTURE:
- Large
- sessile
- multicellular
- cellulose cell wall

- REPRODUCTION:
- Fertilization of female by male gamete;
- alternation of generations

- EXAMPLES:
- Mosses, gymnosperms (naked seeded plants), angiosperms (flower plants)

Front 831

What are the distinguishing features of the Kingdom Animalia?
- STRUCTURE
- REPRODUCTION
- EXAMPLES

Back 831

- STRUCTURE:
- Large, motile
- multicellular
- use muscles for movement
- no cell walls

- REPRODUCTION:
- Sperm and egg form zygote

- EXAMPLES:
seat stars, worms, insects, mammals

Front 832

What endings to most algae like protists have?

Back 832

-phyta

the only one that is different is dinoglagellata or dinogfagellates

Front 833

What endings to most animal like protostia cells have?

Back 833

-phyta

Only one is foraminifera or forams

Front 834

What endings to most of the fungus-like protista's have?

Back 834

-mycota

Front 835

Give me the facts of PGAL

Back 835

considered the prime end product of photosyntesis
- can be used immediately as food
- can be combined and rearranged to form glucose
- can be stored as insoluble polysaccharides such as starch

Front 836

What characteristics does all of the Animal Kingdom share?

Back 836

1) All animals are multicellular
2) All animals are hetetrophic
3) The dominant generation in the life cycle of animals is diploid generation
4) Most animals are motile during at least some part of their life cycle.
5) Most animals undergo a period of embryonic development during which two or three layers of tissues.

Front 837

What is the coelom?
Acoelomate
psuedocoelomate

Back 837

IN more advanced animals, a cavity called a coelom develops from tissue derived from the mesoderm germ layer.

- the fluid-filled coelom cushions the internal organs and allows for their expansion and contraction.

Acoelomate = animals that lack the coelom

psuedocoelomate = animals have a cavity that is not completely lined by mesoderm-derived tissue

Front 838

Protostomes and deuterostomes are another way to characterize animals. Why?

Back 838

During the early development of the zygote, cell divisions, or cleavages, take place in an orderly fashion.

Specific cleavage patterns emerge that result in the development of particular embryonic features.

So these names show the different development patterns among animals

Front 839

Given the following characteristics give me what happens to the Protostomes and Deuterstomes

1) Early cleavages
2) First infolding of archenteron form...
3) Coelum develops from

Back 839

Protostome:
1) Early cleavages.. slight angle (spiral cleavage)
2) First infolding of archenteron form = mouth
3) Coelum develops from ...split in tissue at side of archenteron

Deuterostome:
1) Early cleavages ... straight down (radial cleavage)
2) First infolding of archenteron form... anus
3) Coelum develops from ...outpouching of archenteron wall

Front 840

Describe Porifera

Back 840

Sponges
- feed by filtering water drawn through the sponge wall by flagellated cells called choanocytes
- osculum = where water exits
- Choanocytes pass food to amoebocytes = which wander between the two cell layers of the sponge wall, digesting and distributing materials
- Has spicules = skeletel needles made from either CaCO3 or SiO2

Front 841

Describe Cnidaria

Back 841

Hyda, jelly fish, sea anemones, and corals
- THere are two body forms:
1) Medusa: floating umbrella shaped typical of jellyfish
2) Polyp: a sessile (stationary), cylinder-shaped body rising tenticles type of sea anemones

Front 842

Describe Plathelminthes

Back 842

Flatworms
Three kinds of acoelomate flatworms
1) Free-living flatworms =
-> like planarians
-> carnivores or scavengers
-> life in marine or fresh water

2) Flukes
-> internal animal parasites or external animal parasites that suck tissue fluids or blood

3) Tapeworms
-> internal parasites that often life in the digestive tract of vertebrates
-> Have Proglottids = segments that develop secondarily from reproduction and function independently, the tapeworm is not considered a true segmented animal

Front 843

Descrbie Nematoda

Back 843

Round worms
- have pseudocoelomate bodies with a complete digestive tract
- many are free-living soil dwellers that help decompose and recycle nutrients.

Front 844

Describe Rotifera

Back 844

Rotifers
- microscopic
- milticellular
- specialized organs in pseudocoelom
- have complete digestive tract
- Filter- feeders

Front 845

Describe Mollusca

Back 845

Snails, bivalves, octopuses, and squids
- Most have shells
- Bivalves (clams and muscles), have a shell that has two parts
- Squids, the shell is reduced and internal,
- Octopuses : the shell is absent entirely
- Mollusks have coelomate bodies with a complete digestive tract
- Octopuses have highly developed nervous system and brain

Front 846

Annelida

Back 846

segmented worms, leeches, earthworms, polychaete worms

Front 847

Echinodermata

Back 847

sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars
- coelomate deuterostomes and usually have complete digestive tract
- radial symmetry

Front 848

Chordata

Back 848

Consists of animals that exhibit for main features
1) notochord
2) dorsal hollow nerve cord
3) Pharyngeal gill slits
4) muscular tail

Front 849

What is a notochord?

Back 849

provides a dorsal, flexible rod that functions as support.
- in most chordates, the notochord is replaced by bone during development

Front 850

What is a dorsal hollow nerve cord?

Back 850

Forms the basis of the nervous system. In some chordates, the nerve cord becomes the brain and spinal cord

Front 851

What are Pharyngeal gill slits

Back 851

provide channels across the pharynx (muscular structure at the beginning of the digestive tract) to the outside of the body.
- IN some chordates = the slits become gills for oxygen exchange or filter feeding,
-...while in others the slits disappear during embryonic development.

Front 852

What is a muscular tail?

Back 852

extends behond the digestive tract
-in many chordates, such as humans, the tail is lost during embryonic development

Front 853

What are the two groups of chordates? Give examples of each

Back 853

1) invertebrates = lanceletes and tunicates

2) Vertebrates = sharks, fish, amphibians reptiles, birds, and humans

Front 854

What animal is an example of a chordate that is not a vertebrate. It has a notochord but no backbone?

Back 854

Amphioxus also known as a lancelet

Front 855

What do all fish possess?

Back 855

All fish possess a two-chambered heart, gills, and utilize external fertilization for reproduction

Front 856

What are the classes of fish? Describe where the notochord are..

Back 856

1) Jawless fish - Yes Notochord
2) Cartilaginous fish - Partial notochord
3) Bony fish - No notochord

Front 857

What animal is this?
Phylum
Class
Describe it

Back 857

1) Jawless fish =
- eel-like
- retain the notochord throughout life
- have cartilaginous internal skelton
- no jaws and a sucking mouth
- include class agnatha
- Examples = lamprey and hagfish

Front 858

What is this?
Phylum
Class
Describe

Back 858

Shark
Phylum: Fish
Class: cartilaginous fish
- has jaws and teeth
- reduced notochord as segments between cartilaginous vertebrae

Front 859

What is this?
PHylum
class
describe

Back 859

Tuna
Phylum: Fish
Class: bony fish
- most prevalent type of fish
- scales
- lack notochord in adult form
- during development cartilage is replaced by a bony skeleton

Front 860

What is this and describe it

Back 860

Duckbill platypus
Monetreme = mammals that lay eggs
- leathery eggs
- horny bills
- have milk glands with numerous openings but no nipples

Front 861

Porifera
Common Name
Tissue Complexity
Germ Layers
Body Symmetry
Gut Openings
Coelom
Embryonic Development

Back 861

Common Name: sponges
Tissue Complexity: parazoa
Germ Layers: -
Body Symmetry: none
Gut Openings: 0 (but Amoebocytes carry out digestion for them)

Coelom: -
Embryonic Development: -

Front 862

Cnidaria
Common Name
Tissue Complexity
Germ Layers
Body Symmetry
Gut Openings
Coelom
Embryonic Development

Back 862

cnidaria
Common Name: jellyfish, corals, sea anemones

Tissue Complexity: eumetzoa (have tissues)

Germ Layers: 2
Body Symmetry: radial
Gut Openings: 1
Coelom: -
Embryonic Development: -

Front 863

Platyelminthes:
Common Name
Tissue Complexity
Germ Layers
Body Symmetry
Gut Openings
Coelom
Embryonic Development

Back 863

Common Name: flatworm
Tissue Complexity: eumetazoa
Germ Layers: 3
Body Symmetry: bilateral
Gut Openings: 1
Coelom: acoelomate
Embryonic Development: -

Front 864

Nematoda
Common Name:
Tissue Complexity:
Germ Layers
Body Symmetry
Gut Openings
Coelom
Embryonic Development

Back 864

Nematoda
Common Name: roundworm
Tissue Complexity: eumetazoa
Germ Layers: 3
Body Symmetry: bilateral
Gut Openings: 2
Coelom: pseudocoelomate
Embryonic Development: -

Front 865

Rotifera
Common Name:
Tissue Complexity:
Germ Layers:
Body Symmetry
Gut Openings
Coelom
Embryonic Development

Back 865

Rotifera
Common Name: rotifer
Tissue Complexity: eumetoza
Germ Layers: 3
Body Symmetry: bilateral
Gut Openings: 2
Coelom: pseudocolemate
Embryonic Development : -

Front 866

Mollusca
Common Name:
Tissue Complexity:
Germ Layers:
Body Symmetry
Gut Openings
Coelom
Embryonic Development

Back 866

Mollusca
Common Name: clams, snails, octopuses
Tissue Complexity: eumetazoa
Germ Layers: 3
Body Symmetry: bilateral
Gut Openings:2
Coelom: coelomate
Embryonic Development: protostome

Front 867

Annelida
Common Name:
Tissue Complexity:
Germ Layers:
Body Symmetry
Gut Openings
Coelom
Embryonic Development

Back 867

Common Name: segmented worms
Tissue Complexity: eumetazoa
Germ Layers: 3
Body Symmetry: bilateral
Gut Openings: 2
Coelom: coelomate
Embryonic Development: protostome

Front 868

Arthropoda
Common Name:
Tissue Complexity:
Germ Layers:
Body Symmetry
Gut Openings
Coelom
Embryonic Development

Back 868

Arthropoda
Common Name: insect, spider, crustaceans
Tissue Complexity: eumetazoa
Germ Layers: 3
Body Symmetry: bilateral
Gut Openings: 2
Coelom: coelomate
Embryonic Development: protostome

Front 869

Echniodermata
Common Name:
Tissue Complexity:
Germ Layers:
Body Symmetry
Gut Openings
Coelom
Embryonic Development

Back 869

Echniodermata
Common Name: sea stars, sea urchins
Tissue Complexity: eumetazoa
Germ Layers: 3
Body Symmetry: radial
Gut Openings: 2
Coelom: coelomate
Embryonic Development: deuterostome

Front 870

Chordata
Common Name:
Tissue Complexity:
Germ Layers:
Body Symmetry
Gut Openings
Coelom
Embryonic Development

Back 870

Chordata
Common Name: vertebrates
Tissue Complexity: eumetazoa
Germ Layers: 3
Body Symmetry: bilateral
Gut Openings: 2
Coelom: coelomate
Embryonic Development: deuterostome

Front 871

Bryopyta
Common Name
Dominant Generation
Fluid Transport
Sperm Transport
Dispersal Unit

Back 871

Bryopyta
Common Name: Mosses
Dominant Generation: gametophyte
Fluid Transport: nonvascular
Sperm Transport: flagellated sperm
Dispersal Unit: spores

Front 872

Lycophyta
Common Name
Dominant Generation
Fluid Transport
Sperm Transport
Dispersal Unit

Back 872

Lycophyta
Common Name: club mosses
Dominant Generation: sporophyte
Fluid Transport: vascular
Sperm Transport: flagellated sperm
Dispersal Unit: seeds

Front 873

Sphenophyta
Common Name
Dominant Generation
Fluid Transport
Sperm Transport
Dispersal Unit

Back 873

Sphenophyta
Common Name: horsetails
Dominant Generation: sporophyte
Fluid Transport: vascular
Sperm Transport: flagellated sperm
Dispersal Unit: spores

Front 874

Pterophyta
Common Name
Dominant Generation
Fluid Transport
Sperm Transport
Dispersal Unit

Back 874

Pterophyta
Common Name: ferns
Dominant Generation: sporophyte
Fluid Transport: vascular
Sperm Transport: flagellated sperm
Dispersal Unit:spores

Front 875

Pterophyta
Common Name
Dominant Generation
Fluid Transport
Sperm Transport
Dispersal Unit

Back 875

Anthophyta
Common Name: flowering plants
Dominant Generation: sporophyte
Fluid Transport: vascular
Sperm Transport: wind or animal dispersed pollen
Dispersal Unit: seeds

Front 876

In general, what is evolution?

Back 876

is about the changes in populations, species, or groups of species.

-More specifically, evolution occurs b/c populations very by the frequency of heritable traits that appear from one generation to the next . THese traits are represented by alleles for genes that modify morphology (form or structure), physiology, or behavior

- Thus, evolution is change in allele frequencies over time.

Front 877

Label the different parts of the graph

Back 877

Front 878

WHat are the two areas of evolution?

Back 878

1) Microevolution:
Describes the details of how populations of organisms change from generation to generation to generation and how new species originate.

2) Macroevolution-
describes patter of changes in groups of related species over broad periods of geologic time. The patterns determine phylogeny, the eveolutionary relat. among species and groups of species.

Front 879

Evolutionary relationships among species and groups of species is...

Back 879

phylogeny

Front 880

IN evolution

Homologous =

Analogous =

Back 880

Homologous =
- similar structure
- same origin

Analogous =
- similar structure
- different origin

Front 881

Fossils provide information. Describe the types of fossils

Back 881

1) actual remains: teeth, bones,etc that are found in rock, tar pits, ice and amber

2) Petrification: process in which minerals replace the cells of an organism

3) Imprints: are impressoions left by an organism (i.e. footprints)

4) Molds = form in hallow spaces of rocks, as the organismss within decay

5) Casts: formed by minerals deposited by molds.

Front 882

What are some of the significant fossil remains found?

Back 882

Trilobite = primitive crustacean
Dinosaurs
Eohippus = the dawn horse
Woolly Mammoth
Saber-tooth
Archaepteryx = the missing link between reptiles and birds

Front 883

What are examples of homologous structures?

Back 883

wings of a bat
flipper of a whale
forelegs of horses
arms of man

Front 884

What are examples of analogous structures?

Back 884

the wings of a fly (membranous) and bird (has feathers)

the have similar structures but come from different origins

Front 885

How does embryology help with evolution?

Back 885

The stages of development of the embryo resemble the state in an orgaism's evolutionary history

Examples
The two layer gastrula is similar in structure to the hydra
- 3 layer gastrula is similar in structure to the flatworm
- Gill slits which are present in the embryo indicate a common ancestry with fish

- Human embryos possess a tail
- the larvae of some mollusks resemble annelids
- or the avian embryo has teeth, suggesting a reptile stage

Front 886

What things are most similar in most organisms?

Back 886

Metabolic process: ATP
Respiratory process:
All have nucleotides
- The closer the organisms in the evolutionary shceme, the greater the similarity of tier chemical constiuents (enzymes, hormones, antibodies, blood) and genetic information.

Front 887

True or false: the more time that has elapsed since the divergence of two species = the more different their biochemical charactersics?

Back 887

True

Front 888

What are vestigial structures?

Back 888

structures that appear to be useless but apparently had some ancestral function

Front 889

What are some examples of vestigial structures in humans?

Back 889

Appendix = small and useless
-> but Herbivores use it to assist in the digeston of cellulose

- In humans the tail is reduced to a few useless bones (coccyx) at the base of the spine

- Splints on legs of horse are teh vestigial remains of the 2 side toes of Eohippus

- The python has legs which are reduced to useless bones embedded in the sides of teh adult
-> A whale has similar hind-limb bones

Front 890

What is the purpose of migration?

Back 890

Lessens the intraspecific competition.

Front 891

What are two examples how geographic barriers played a role in evolution?

Back 891

Example 1: Marsupials - pouched animals were created i.e. kangaro, duckbill, pouched wolves, and eucapytus tree

Example 2: Darwin's finches of the Galapagos.
- in a short amount of time 13 different species developed

Front 892

What are the two main theories of evolution?

Back 892

Lamarckian and Darwin

Front 893

Describe Lamarck's theory of evolution?

Back 893

In a nutshell:
- "use or disuse"
- He was wrong
- Just b/c I have big muscles does not mean that my son will inherit them too.
- Only change in the DNA of the sex cells can be inherited

Front 894

Describe the main points of Darwin's theory of evolution

Back 894

Theory of Natural Sellection
1) Overpopulation
- A pop. can produce alot
- But resources are insufficient to support entire pop.

2) Variations
-> Offspring naturally show differences (variations) than their parents

3) Competition (Struggle for Survival)
-> many must compete for resources
-> adult population gen. remains the same

4) Natural selection AKA "Survival of the Fittest"
-> Chance variations occur thanks to mutation and recombination
-> If the varation is "selected for" by the environment, that individual will be more "fit" and more likely to survive to reporductive age.
-> Survival of the fittest leads to an increase of those favorable genes in the gene pool

5) Inheritance of Variations
-> Individuals that survive with those variations will most likely TRANSMIT them to their offspring

6) Evolution of new species
-> over many generations, the favorable changes (adaptations) are perpatuated in the species
-> enough of these new adaptations are gathered in teh gene pool
-> a new species is created

Example: The rapid evolution of DDT-resistant insects illustarates the theory of natural selection (Those AR bugs changed to love DDT. looks like humans will need to bomb the place

Front 895

By what ways does natural selection may act upon a population?

Back 895

Stabilizing selection
Directional selection
disruptive selection
Sexual selection

Front 896

What type of selection is this?
Assume the left side is Short humans and the right side are tall humans

Back 896

Stabilizing Selection of Height Variation in Humans
- eliminates individuals that have extreme or unusual traits.
- common traits are more favored

Front 897

WHat type of selection is this?
Assume the left side of the graph are short weeds and the right are tall weeds

Back 897

Disruptive selection (or diversifying selection)
- occurs when the environment favors extreme or unusual traits, while selecting against the common traits.

Tall weeds are predominant but because of disruptive selection only short weeds show up on the lawn. The mid height weeds are eliminated.

Front 898

What type of selection is this if the left are female elephant seals and the right are male elephant seals?

Back 898

Sexual selection
- is the differential mating of males (sometimes females) in a population.

Females (invest more energy)increase their fitness by choosing a superior male

Males (invest little energy): increase their fitness by have orgies with tons of females = tons of offspring.

Thus, traits (physical qualities or behaviors) tha allow males to increase their mating frequency have a selective advantage and, as a result, increase in frequency within the population.

Front 899

WHat are the 5 maine sources of variation?

Back 899

1) Mutations
2) Sexual Reproduction
-> crossing over
-> independent assortment of homologous chromosomes
-> Random joining of gametes

3) Diploidy- In the heterozygous condition the recessive gene is hidden. Result = more variation in gene pool

4) Outbreeding
5) Balanced Polymorphism: the maintenance of different phenotypes in a population

Front 900

How can polymorphism be maintained in a population?

Back 900

1) Heterozygote advantage- occurs when heterozygous condition bear a great selective advantage than either homozygous condition.

2) Hybrid vigor ( or heterosis)
- describes the superior quality of offspring resulting from crosses between two different inbred strains of plants.
- Example: A hybrid of corn, developed by crossing two different corn strains that were highly inbred, is more resistant to disease and produces larger corn ears than that either of the inbred strains.

3) Frequency-dependent selection ( or minority advantage)
- occurs when the least common phenotypes have a selective advantage.

Front 901

When allele frequencies in population remain constant from generation to generation, the population is said to be ...

What does this mean?

Back 901

in genetic equilibrium or Hard-Weinberg equilibrium

Means that evolution does not occur

Front 902

What are the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium conditions?

Back 902

1) No natural selection (all traits are selectively neutral)
2) Mutations do not occur
3) No gene flow = Pop must be isolated
4) No Genetic drift = population is large
5) Mating is random

Front 903

What values determine genetic equilibrium?

Back 903

1) Allele frequencies for each allele: p (Dominant allele),
q (Recessive allele)

2) Frequency of homozygotes p^2 (Dominant: RR)
q^2 (Recessive: rr

3) Frequency of heterozygotes 2pq

Also
p +q = 1 (all alleles sum to 100%)

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 (all individuals sum to 100%)

Front 904

What is speciation?

Back 904

is the evolution of new species, which are groups of individuals who can interbreed freely with each other, but not with members of other species.

Front 905

What are demes?

Back 905

A Deme is a small population. This can lead to speciation (evolution of a new species)

For example: Beavers in one location form a deme and then interbreed with one another.

Down the river there may be similar beavers with another deme that interbreed with themselves

Thus, each Deme are more closely related to their own deme since they spend more time breeding with each other

Front 906

What are the types of speciation?

Back 906

1) Demes
2) Development of New Species through:
-gene flow
- genetic variation
- environment
- migration to new environments
- isolation
- natural selection

3) Adaptive Radiation:
Starts with an ancestor.
- Say a Marsupial Alien lands on Austriala (huge land)
- Each of the Aliens passengers inhabits different parts of Australia
- They all turn into different species but come from the same Ancestor Mother Ship

4) Allopatric or geographic speciation (geographic barrier that splits them up = they become different species)

5) Sympatric or Parallel (No geographic barrier but still form different species)

Front 907

What do each of the following do in humans?
A. Chorion
B. Allantois
C. Amnion
D. Yolk Sc
E. Placenta

Back 907

A. Chorion: line the inside of the shell, and is a moist membrane that permits gas exchange

B. Allantois: is a sac-like structure involved in respirations and excretion. I contains blood vessels to transport O2, CO2, water, salt and nitrogenous wastes. Later development, the vessels enlarge and become the umbilical vessels, which will connect the fetus to the placenta.

C. Amnion: is the membrane which encloses the amniotic fluid. Amniotic fluid provides aqueous envioronment which protects the developing embryo from shock

D. Yoke SAc: Blood vessels in the yolk sac transfer food to the developing embryo

E. Placenta: The placenta and the umbilical cord are outgrowths of the the four previous membranes. THis system allows the fetus to receive oxygen and nutrients to the fetus while removing carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes.

Front 908

What does osmotic pressure describe?

Back 908

the propensity of water to diffuse to a region
- Osmotic pressure is proportional to the solute (i.e. NaCl) concentration (or osmolarity).

Front 909

What does high osmotic pressure mean?

Back 909

High osmotic pressure in a region- an area with the highest solute concentration- implies that osmosis will act to send water to that region.

Front 910

Which metal is complexed to chlorophyll?
A .Zinc
B. Copper
C. Iron
D. Magnesium
E Manganese

Back 910

D. Magnesium
Chlorophyll, the green pigment that participates in the light reactions of photosynthesis, has a magnesium atom in its center.

Zinc, copper and manganese are involved in a variety of cellular functions, non of which need to be memorized. Iron is found in hemoglobin, and provides the ability to bind and release oxygen.

Front 911

Capillary has:
A) a _______ hydrostatic pressure at the ______end and a ________ hydrostatic pressure at the venule end.

Back 911

A capillary has a higher hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end and a lower hydrostatic pressure at the venule end.

Front 912

A capillary has a _____osmotic pressure in its blood than the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid bathing the tissues.

Back 912

higher

Front 913

A capillary has a ______ ______that results from the beating of the heart

Back 913

hydrostatic pressure

Front 914

What do each of the following do?

Salivary amylase
B. Pancreatic amylase
C. Carboxypeptidase
D. Maltose
E. Lactase

Back 914

A, Salivary amylase: (aka ptyalin) hydrolyzes starch, a polysaccharide, into maltose, a disaccharide.
B. Pancreatic amylase: also hydrolyzes starch to maltose

C. Carboxypeptidase: hydrolyzes the terminal peptide bond at the carboxyl end of a protein.

D. Maltose: It is not an enzyme like the others. is a disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules.

E. Lactase: hydrolyzes lactose, a disaccharide, into its components, glucose and galactose.

Front 915

What is the main difference between the function of salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase?

Back 915

salivary amylase hydrolyzes two-sugar molecules (disaccharides) into their component one-sugar molecules (monosaccharides)

pancreatic amylase hydrolyzes a polyssacharide to a disaccharide.

Front 916

True or false:

The motor neurons of the sympathetic nervous system originate in the thoracic and lumber region of the spinal cord

Back 916

True

Front 917

T or F

The sympathetic nervous system regulates the secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline form the adrenal medulla

Back 917

True

Front 918

True or False:

The nervous system of the autonomic nervous system consist of one sensory neuron and one motor neuron.

Back 918

False. The first motor neuron in the pathway has its cell body within the CNS, then synapses outside of the CNS with the second motor neuron, which innervates the effector.

Front 919

T or F:

The motor neurons in the parasympathetic nervous system that originate in the cranial and sacral regions of the spinal cord synapse near the target site.

Back 919

True

Front 920

T or False

The autonomic nervous system regulates the heart, the smooth muscle in the wall of the digestive tract, the respiratory system and the excretory system.

Back 920

True

Front 921

WHat is hemoglobin designed to do?

How is the overall cause that will cause decrease the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen?

Back 921

Hemoglobin is exquisitely designed to respond to the oxygen need of tissues. (Tissue oxygen supplier)

2) Conditions of increased metabolism will tend to decrease the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, releasing the oxygen to the depleted tissues.

Front 922

What are the main metabolic conditions of the decrease in the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen?

Back 922

1) Metabolism produces lactic acid which decreases the pH. THis will shift the curve to the right to release more oxygen.

2) Increased CO2 = causes decrease the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen

3) Increased temperature = causes a decrease the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen.

4) Increase in metabolites = causes a decrease the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen.

The concentration of CO, carbon monoxide, will NOT affect hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen.

Front 923

Label each Endocrine organ shown and each hormone they secrete.

Back 923

Front 924

Endocrinology:
Label each of the endocrine organs and what each secrete

Back 924

Front 925

Endocrinology:
Label each organ and the hormone they secrete

Back 925

Front 926

FSH

Give:
- Location
- Peptide or Steroid or amino acid derivative?
- Effect

Back 926

- AP
- Peptide
- In females: stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles in ovary
In males: stimulates spermatogenesis

Front 927

LH

Give:
- Location
- Peptide or Steroid or amino acid derivative?
- Effect

Back 927

- AP
- Peptide
- Females: Stimulates ovulation and formation of corpus luteum
- Males: stimulates testosterone synthesis

Front 928

Give:
ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)

- Location
- Peptide or Steroid or amino acid derivative?
- Effect

Back 928

- AP
- peptide
- stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete glucorticoids

Front 929

TSH

Give:
- Location
- Peptide or Steroid or amino acid derivative?
- Effect

Back 929

- AP
- peptide
- Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones T4 and T3

Front 930

Prolactin

Give:
- Location
- Peptide or Steroid or amino acid derivative?
- Effect

Back 930

- AP
- peptide
- Stimulates milk synthesis and release from mammary glands

Front 931

Endorphins

Give:
- Location
- Peptide or Steroid or amino acid derivative?
- Effect

Back 931

- AP
- ?
- Inhibit the perception of pain in the brain

Front 932

GH

Give:
- Location
- Peptide or Steroid or amino acid derivative?
- Effect

Back 932

- AP
- peptide
- Stimulates growth and cell reproduction
- stimulates lypolysis

Front 933

Oxytocin

Give:
- Location
- Peptide or Steroid or amino acid derivative?
- Effect

Back 933

- Made in Hypothalamus. Stored in Posterior Pituitary.
- Peptide
- Stimulates uterine contractions during labor, milke secretion during lactation

Front 934

Vasopressin (ADH)

Give:
- Location
- Peptide or Steroid or amino acid derivative?
- Effect

Back 934

- Made in Hypothalamus. Stored in Posterior Pituitary.
- Peptide
- Stimulates water reabsorption in the kidneys (distil convoluted tubule)

Front 935

Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4)
Give:
- Location
- Peptide or Steroid or amino acid derivative?
- Effect

Back 935

- Thyroid
- Amino acid that acts as steroid Remember the "oid" in thyroid means acts as steroid)
- Both stimulate METABOLISM: oxygen and energy consumption

Front 936

Parathyroid Hormone

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 936

- Parathyroid
- Peptide
- Increases blood calcium level

Front 937

Calcitonin

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 937

- Thyroid
- Peptide
- Decreases (tones down) blood calcium levels. Stimulates osteoblasts (build) and thus bone construction

Front 938

Glucorticoids

Give
- Main hormone
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 938

- Cortisol
- Adrenal Cortex
- Steroid
- INcreases blood glucose level and decreases protein synthesis

From Wikipedia:

Stimulates gluconeogenesis
Stimulates fat breakdown in adipose tissue
Inhibits protein synthesis
Inhibits glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue
Inhibits immunological responses (immunosuppressive)
Inhibits inflammatory responses (anti-inflammatory)

Front 939

Mineralcorticoids

Give
- Main hormone involved
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 939

- Aldosterone
- Adrenal Cortex
- Steroid
- Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
- Wikipedia: Stimulates active sodium reabsorption in kidneys
Stimulates passive water reabsorption in kidneys, thus increasing blood volume and blood pressure
Stimulates potassium and H+ secretion into nephron of kidney and subsequent excretion

Front 940

Epinephrine, Norepinephrine

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 940

- Adrenal Medulla
- Amino acid derivative but acts as a peptide
- Flight or flight response . Increases blood glucose levels and heart rate

Front 941

Glucagon

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 941

- Pancreas
- Peptide
- Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver, increases blood glucose

Front 942

Insulin

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 942

- Pancreas
- Peptide
- Lowers blood glucose, increases glycogen stores.

Front 943

Somatostatin

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 943

- Pancreas
- Peptide ?
- Inibits secretion of glucagon and insulin

Front 944

Testosterone

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 944

- Testes
- Steroid
- Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics

Front 945

Estrogen

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 945

- Ovary/Placenta
- Steroid
- Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics

Front 946

Progesterone

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 946

- Ovary/placenta
- Steroid
- Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium

Front 947

Melatonin

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 947

- Pineal Gland
- Unclear in humans

Front 948

Atrial natriuretic peptide

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 948

- Heart
- peptide
- Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation

Front 949

Thymosin

Give
- Location
- Peptide, steroid or amino acid derivative
- Effects

Back 949

- Thymus
- Peptide
- Stimulates T lymphocyte development

Front 950

Secretin

Give
- Location
- Effects

Back 950

- Duodenum
- Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas and duodenal Brunner's Glands
- Enhances effects of cholecystokinin Stops production of gastric juice

Front 951

Cholecystokinin

Give
- Location
- Effects

Back 951

- Duodenum
- Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas
Release of bile from gallbladder hunger suppressant

Front 952

Gastrin

Give
- Location
- Effects

Back 952

- stomach
- secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells

Front 953

Pepsin

Give
- Location
- Effects

Back 953

- Chief Cells/stomach
- Protein breakdown: Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds

Front 954

Trypsin

Give
- Location
- Effects

Back 954

- Pancreas/ small intestine
- Protein breakdown
- Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin

Front 955

chymotrypsin

Give
- Location
- Effects

Back 955

- Pancreas/ small intestine
- Protein breakdown

Front 956

carboxypeptidase

Give
- Location
- Effects

Back 956

- Pancreas/small intestine
- protein breakdown

Front 957

Aminopeptidase

Give
- Location
- Effects

Back 957

- Inestinal glands/small intestine
- protein break down

Front 958

dipeptidase

Give
- Location
- Effects

Back 958

- Inestinal glands/small intestine
- protein break down

Front 959

enterokinase

Give
- Location
- Effects

Back 959

- intestinal glands/small intestine
- converts trypsinogen to trypsin

Front 960

salivary amylase (pytalin)

Give
- General Function
- Site of Production
- Site of Function
- Effects

Back 960

- Carbohydrate digestion
- Salivary Glands
- Mouth
- Hydrolysis reaction:
Starch -> Maltose

Front 961

Pancreatic amylase

Give
- General Function
- Site of Production
- Site of Function
- Effects

Back 961

- Carbohydrate digestion
- Site of Production: Pancreas
- Site of Function: small intestine
- Hydrolysis Function:
Starch -> Maltose

Front 962

Maltase

Give
- General Function
- Site of Production
- Site of Function
- Effects

Back 962

- Carbohydrate digestion
- Site of Production: intestinal glands
- Site of Function: small intestine
- Hydrolysis reaction:
Maltose -> 2 glucoses

Front 963

Sucrase

Give
- General Function
- Site of Production
- Site of Function
- Effects

Back 963

- Carbohydrate breakdown
- Site of Production: intestinal glands
- Site of Function: small intestine
- Hydrolysis rxn:
Sucrose (table sugar) -> glucose, fructose

Front 964

Lactase

Give
- General Function
- Site of Production
- Site of Function
- Effects

Back 964

- carbohydrate digestion
- site of production: intestinal glands
- site of function: small intestines
- Hydrolysis rxn:
Lactose -> glucose, galactose

Front 965

Lipase

Give
- General Function
- Site of Production
- Site of Function
- Effects

Back 965

- Lipid digestion
- Site of Production: Pancreas
- Site of Function: small intestine
- Hydrolyzes (breaks down) lipids

Front 966

Is bile and enzyme?

Back 966

No

Front 967

Where is bile made and what function does it have?

Back 967

Made in liver and stored in gall bladder. It emulsifies fat in the small intestine; it's NOT an enzyme

Front 968

WHat does CCK stand for and where is it produced and what does it do?

Back 968

CCK = cholecystokinin
Produced in the duodenum
- WHen chyme is present, the duodenum secretes CCK hormone into the blood

Front 969

WHat does CCK stimulate?

Back 969

CCK stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes in bile.

Front 970

How does the body distinguish between "self" and "nonself"

Back 970

By use of antigens located on the surface of cells. Antigen can be local or foreign.

Front 971

Where does protein digestion occur?

2) Where does carbohydrate digestion occur?

3) WHere does lipid digestion occur?

Back 971

Protein Digestion occurs in the stomach and small intestines

Carbohydrate digestion occurs in the mouth and small intestine

Lipid digestion occurs in the small intestine.

Special fat note: Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results in 3 fatty acid molecules and one glycerol molecule.

Front 972

What are the only two amino acid derivative hormones in the body? ANd what do they act like?

Back 972

1) Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and they act like steroids

2) Epinephrine acts like a peptide

Front 973

With regards to pressure what does a capillary have?

Back 973

A higher hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end and lower hydrostatic pressure at the venule end.

2) A higher osmotic pressure in its blood plasma than the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid bathing the tissues. This is a result of the greater amount of dissolved solutes in the blood plasma of the capillaries.

3) A hydrostatic pressure that results from the beating of the heart.