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166 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
organism
Any living entity that contains one or more cells.
theory
A proposed explanation for a broad class of phenomena or observations.
cell
A highly organized compartment bounded by a thin, flexible structure (plasma membrane) and containing concentrated chemicals in an aqueous (watery) solution. The basic structural and functional unit of all organisms.
cell theory
The theory that all organisms are made of cells and that all cells come from preexisting cells.
hypothesis
A proposed explanation for a phenomenon or for a set of observations.
prediction
A measurable or observable result of an experiment based on a particular hypothesis. A correct prediction provides support for the hypothesis being tested.
evolution
1. The theory that all organisms on Earth are related by common ancestry and that they have changed over time, predominantly via natural selection.
2. Any change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time, especially, a change in allele frequencies.
natural selection
The process by which individuals with certain heritable traits tend to produce more surviving offspring than do individuals without those traits, often leading to a change in the genetic makeup of the population. A major mechanism of evolution.
heritable
Referring to traits that can be transmitted from one generation to the next.
population
A group of individuals of the same species living in the same geographic area at the same time.
artificial selection
Deliberate manipulation by humans, as in animal and plant breeding, of the genetic composition of a population by allowing only individuals with desirable traits to reproduce.
fitness
The ability of an individual to produce viable offspring relative to others of the same species.
adaptation
Any heritable trait that increases the fitness of an individual with that trait, compared with individuals without that trait, in a particular environment.
phylogeny
The evolutionary history of a group of organisms.
eukaryotes
A member of the domain Eukarya; an organism whose cells contain a nucleus, numerous membrane-bound organelles, and an extensive cytoskeleton. May be unicellular or multicellular.
prokaryotes
A member of the domain Bacteria or Archaea; a unicellular organism lacking a nucleus and containing relatively few organelles or cytoskeletal components.
taxonomy
The branch of biology concerned with the classification and naming of organisms.
taxon
Any named group of organisms at any level of a classification system.
domain
1. A section of a protein that has distinctive tertiary structure and function.
2. A taxnomic category,, based on similarities in basic cellular biochemistry, above the kingdom level. The three recognized domains are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
phylum
In Linnaeus' system, a taxonomic category above the class level and below the kingdom level.
genus
In Linnaeus' system, a taxonomic category of closely related species. Always italicized and capitalized to indicate that it is a recognized scientific genus.
hypothesis
A proposed explanation for a phenomenon or for a set of observations.
control
In a scientific experiment, a group of organisms or samples that do not receive the experimental treatment but are otherwise identical to the group that does.
population thinking
The ability to analyze trait frequencies, event probabilities, and other attributes of populations of molecules, cells, or organisms.
descent with modification
The phrase used by Darwin to describe his hypothesis of evolution by natural selection.
fossil
Any trace of an organism that existed in the past. Includes tracks, burrows, fossilized bones, casts, etc.
fossil record
All of the fossils that have been found anywhere on Earth and that have been formally described in the scientific literature.
extant species
A species that is living today.
geologic time scale
The sequence of eons, eras, and periods used to describe the geologic history of Earth.
sedimentary rocks
A type of rock formed by gradual accumulation of sediment, as in riverbeds and on the ocean floor. Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks.
extinct
Species that has died out.
transitional feature
A trait that is intermediate between a condition observed in ancestral species and the condition observed in more derived species.
vestigial trait
Any rudimentary structure of unknown or minimal function that is homologous to functioning structures in other species.
phylogeny
The evolutionary history of a group of organisms.
homology
Similarity among organisms of different species due to their inheritance from a common ancestor. Features that exhibit such similarity are said to be homologous.
morphology
The shape and appearance of an organism's body and its component parts.
natural selection
The process by which individuals with certain heritable traits tend to produce more surviving offspring than do individuals without those traits, often leading to a change in the genetic makeup of the population. A major mechanism of evolution.
acclimation
Gradual physiological adjustment of an organism to new environmental conditions that occur naturally or as part of a laboratory experiment.
tuberculosis
A disease of the lungs caused by infection with the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
natural experiment
A situation in which groups to be compared are created by an unplanned, natural change in conditions rather than by manipulation of conditions by researchers.
gene pool
All of the alleles of all of the genes in a certain population.
genetic correlation
A type of evolutionary constraint in which selection on one trait causes a change in another trait as well; may occur when the same gene(s) affect both traits
fitness trade-off
In evolutionary biology, an inescapable compromise between two traits that cannot be optimized simultaneously.
heterozygote advantage
A pattern of natural selection that favors heterozygous individuals compared with homozygotes. Tends to maintain genetic variation in a population
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
A principle of population genetics stating that genotype frequencies in a large population do not change from generation to generation in the absence of evolutionary processes (mutation, migration, genetic drift, random mating, and selection)
genetic variation
1. The number and relative frequency of alleles present in a particular population.
2. The proportion of phenotypic variation in a trait that is due to genetic rather than environmental influences in a certain population in a certain environment.
directional selection
A pattern of natural selection that favors one extreme phenotype with the result that the average phenotype of a population changes in one direction. Generally reduces overall genetic variation in a population
purifying selection
Selection that lowers the frequency or even eliminates deleterious alleles.
stabilizing selection
A pattern of natural selection that favors phenotypes near the middle of the range of phenotypic variation. Reduces overall genetic variation in a population.
disruptive selection
A pattern of natural selection that favors extreme phenotypes at both ends of the range of phenotypic variation. Maintains overall genetic variation in a population.
balancing selection
A pattern of natural selectionin which no single allele is favored in all populations of a species at all times. Instead, there is a balance among alleles in terms of fitness and frequency.
frequency-dependent selection
A pattern of selection in which certain alleles are favored only when they are rare; a form of balancing selection.
genetic drift
Any change in allele frequencies due to random events. Causes allele frequencies to drift up and down randomly over time, and eventually can lead to the fixation or loss of alleles.
sampling error
The accidental selection of a nonrepresentative sample from some larger population, due to change.
genetic marker
A genetic locus tha can be identified and traced in populations by laboratory techniques or by a distinctive visible phenotype.
founder effect
A change in allele frequencies that often occurs when a new population is established from a small group of individuals (founder event) due to sampling error (the small group is not a representative sample of the source population).
genetic bottleneck
A reduction in allelic diversity resulting from a sudden reduction in the size of a large population (population bottleneck) due to a random event.
gene flow
The movement of alleles between populations; occurs when individuals leave one population, join another, and breed.
deleterious
In genetics, referring to any mutation, allele, or trait that reduces an individual's fitness.
mutation
Any change in the hereditary material of an organism (DNA in most organisms, RNA in some viruses).
beneficial
In genetics, referring to any mutation, allele, or trait that increases an individual's fitness.
biological species concept
The definition of a species as a population or group of populations that are reproductively isolated from other groups. Members of a species have the potential to interbreed in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring but cannot produce viable, fertile hybrid offspring with members of other species.
inbreeding
Mating between closely related individuals. Increases homozygosity of a population and often leads to a decline in the average fitness.
inbreeding depression
In inbred offspring, fitness declines due to deleterious recessive alleles that are homozygous.
prezygotic isolation
Reproductive isolation resulting from any one of several mechanisms that prevent individuals of two different species from mating.
postzygotic isolation
Reproductive isolation resulting from mechanisms that operate after mating of individuals of two different species occurs.
sexual dimorphism
Any trait that differs between males and females.
species
A distinct, identifiable group of populations that is thought to be evolutionarily independent of other populations and whose members can interbreed. Generally distinct from other species in appearance, behavior, habitat, ecology, genetic characteristics, etc.
territory
An area that is actively defended by an animal from other of its species.
allopatric speciation
The divergence of populations into different species by physical isolation of populations in different geographic areas.
allopatry
Condition in which two or more populations live in different geographic areas.
biogeography
The study of how species and populations are distributed geographically.
cryptic species
A species that cannot be distinguished from other species by easily identifiable morphological traits.
morphospecies concept
The definition of a species as a population or group of populations that have measurably different anatomical features from other groups.
monophyletic group/clade/lineage
An evolutionary unit that includes an ancestral population and all of its descendants but no others.
phylogenetic species concept
The definition of a species as the smallest monophyletic group in a phylogenetic tree.
subspecies
A population that has distinctive traits and some genetic differences relative to other populations of the same species but that is not distinct enough to be classified as a seperate species.
synapomorphy
A shared, derived trait found in two or more taxa that is present in their most recent common ancestor but is missing in more distant ancestors. Useful for inferring evolutionary relationships.
vicariance
The physical splitting of a population into smaller, isolated populations by a geographic barrier.
Allopolyploidy
The state of having more than two full sets of chromosomes due to hybridization between different species.
Autopolyploidy
The state of having more than two full sets of chromosomes due to a mutation that doubled the chromosome number.
hybrid zone
A geographic area where interbreeding occurs between two species, sometimes producing fertile hybrid offspring.
polyploidly
The state of having more than two full sets of chromosomes.
reinforcement
In evolutionary biology, the natural selection for traits that prevent interbreeding between recently diverged species.
sympatric speciation
The divergence of populations living within the same geographic area into different species as the result of their genetic isolation.
sympatry
Condition in which two or more populations live in the same geographic area, or close enough to permit interbreeding.
law
A narrowly- focused prediction derived from a wider theory. Often mathematical in nature.
Aristotle
Ordered the types of organism known at the time into a linear scheme called the great chain of being, or Scala Naturae. Also said that species are fixed types, and some species are higher.
Paley
Created the Natural Theology. Argument from Design, also known as the Watchmaker Argument. Said that organisms are complex and well-adapted because they were made by God.
Cuvier
Created Catastrophism. Said that multiple divine catastrophes followed by creation events in short period. God creates variation on general body plans with each new creation.
Lyell
Created Uniformitarianism. His Principles of Geology was highly influential. Darwin read his work during his travels.
Lamark
Created Lamarkian Evolution. He said that spontaneous generation produces simple species which evolve over time due to two forces: Drive towards complexity, and Adaptive force.
Malthus
Wrote the Essay on the Principle of Population. After his observations on the problems of human population growth: Populations increase over time, increases in food production can't keep pace with growth, therefore not everyone can avoid starvation.
Ladder of Nature/ Great Chain of Being
Aristotle's linear scheme that organized species into a sequence based on increased size and complexity, and that the characteristics of species were fixed.
Natural Theology
Created by Paley. Earth is young 6000 years old. All living things were created by God, and species did not change.
Catastrophism
Created by Cuvier. It challenged the fossil record: Multiple layers of fossil species, many of these species were extinct, and increasing similarity to modern species.
Uniformitarianism
Created by Lyell. Forces acting on the Earth were the same in the past as present. No divine events created the Earth. Because change is slow, the Earth is old.
Lamarkian Evolution
Created by Lamarck Said spontaneous generation produces simple species which evolve over time due to the drive towards complexity and the adaptive force.
Darwin and Wallace
Said that descent with modification or evolution: Changes in a population or species over time
The Origin of Species
Written by Darwin. About evolution and natural selection.
Microevolution
Changes within species, often involves single mutations and quantitive changes, and may occur over one generation or thousands.
Macroevolution
The processs of speciation and longer term events, can involve major changes in form and function, and may require millions of generations.
Comparative Study
Comparing populations or species from naturally-differeing environments.
Experimental Study
Actively manipulating the populations or enivronments to create differences.
Common-Garden Experiment
Bringing population samples into lab and raise in common conditions.
Phenotype
Characteristics of the organism that result from a combination of genotype and environmental factors.
genotype
The specific alleles or genes in an individual's genome.
phenotypic selection
refers to the component of the natural selection process in which some traits result in greater fitness than others.
multi-locus
Phenotypic traits that involve multiple loci. For example, body size is influenced by many genes.
single-locus
Phenotypic traits that involve a single gene. For example, the resistance to antibiotics seen in some bacteria.
transitional form/species
Forms or forms of species and traits that are intermediate between a condition observed in ancestral species and the condition observed in more derived species.
taxonomic group
Groupings of specific taxons.
ecological niche
Paticular set of habitat requirements of a certain species and the role that species playes in its ecosystem.
homologous trait
A trait that shows similarity in different species because of common evolutionary origin.
analogous trait
A trait that shares a similar function but different origin. For example, wings of an insect and wings of a bird.
Allele
A particular version of a gene.
locus
A gene's physical location on a chromosome
haploid
Having one set of chromosomes (1n)
diploid
having two sets of chromosomes (2n).
homozygote
two copies of the same allele
heterozygote
two different alleles
punnett square
A diagram that depicts the genotypes and phenotypes that should appear in offspring of a certain cross.
fixation
Complete loss of an allele
Mendelian inheritance
Predicts offsrping for particular parents
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
No natural selection
No genetic drift
No gene flow
No new mutations
Random Mating
Source/sink population
One population to another population.
single-locus mutation
change, addition or loss of nucleotides from one locus
gene duplications
The formation of an additional copy of a gene.
gene deletions
The loss of a copy of gene.
positive assortative mating
Mate chosen based on similarity to self.
negative assortative mating
Mate chosen based on dissimilarity to self.
sexual selection
When individuals differe in their ability to obtain mates based on phenotype. Particular traits are more generally more attractive to mates. A different aspect of natural selection.
fundamental asymmetry of sex
Females usually invest more in offspring than males do.
morphological species
Species based on the phenotype of individuals. Populations that look the same are considered one species. By Carl Linnaeus.
biological species
All individuals that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring. By Ernst Mayr
phylogenetic species
Groups with sufficient separation on the phylogenetic tree are considered species.
binomial nomenclature
Species' name composed of two elements. First representing the genus to which the organism belongs and the second being the specific epithet.
Linnean taxonomy
Made by Carl Linnaeus. A hierarchical system that classifies living things.
phylogenetic tree
Also known as a cladogram, a diagram that depicts the evolutionary history of a group of species and the relationships among them.
monphyletic group
Also known as, clade or lineage, it consists of all the groups sharing a single ancestral population.
convergent evolution
The independent evolution of analogous traits in distantly related organisms due to adaptation to similar environments and a similar way of life.
tips
The end of a branch on a phylogenetic tree. Represents a specific species or lager taxon that has not yet produced descendants.
branches
A part of the phylogenetic tree that represents populations through time.
nodes
The point where two branches diverge, representing the point in time when an ancestral group split into two or more descendant groups.
vicariance event
Species form when populations become physically separated because of the appearance of physical barrier.
polyploidy
Triploid (3n) or tetraploid (4n) individuals. Reproductive isolation is typical due to incompatible gametes. 2 types: Autopolyploidy and allopolyploidy.
straitgraphic dating
Once timelines established
pleisiomorphy
Ancestral
parsimony
Minimize number of changes to explain current patterns.
homoplasy
A trait that is the same but not due to common ancestry
endothermy
An animal whose primary source of body heat is internally generated heat.
radiometric dating
Using half-lives of radioactive elements.
molecular clock
Genetic changes that involve silent or neutral mutations, the rate is constant over time.
silent/neutral mutation
The rate of mutation that's constant over time.
compression fossil
Fossil that is flat. Gives us 2d image of the living thing.
cast fossil
Fossil that is an imprint of the living thing.
permineralized fossil
Fossilized tissue
intact fossil
Fossils with the whole living thing in tact. Can get DNA from it.
Precambrain
Lasted from 4.6 billion - 540 million years ago. Included Hadean, Archean, Proterzoic. Formation of Earth, Origin of life, Oxygenic photosynthesis, Oxgenated atmosphere, Eukaryotic and multicellular life appears.
Paleozoic
540-350 million years ago. Included the origin early diversification of animals, land plants, and fungi. Cambrian explosion begins, All major animal and plant groups invade land, arthropods and vertebrates invade land, larger plants, winged insects, Permian mass extinction.
Mesozoic
250-65 million years ago. First mammals, flowering plants, birds, Cretaceous mass extinction.
Cenozoic
65-0 million years ago. Primates, apes, human-like apes appear.
Cambrain explosion
Rapid diversification of animal groups from simple forms. External/internal skeletons, cephalization, major sensory structures, and locomotory appendages.
Burgess Shale fossils
520 million year old Canadian deposits that showed most of the major animal groups and their complex structure.
Adaptive radiation
A rapid and extensive diversification of an evolutionary group.
Key adaptation
Is a new feature that greatly improves the evolutionary potential of a group. Can be morphological, physiological, behavioral, developmental, or genetic. Allows the group to exploit a new habitat or lifestyle, or outcompete other groups.