Plants

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Plants

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Multicellular eukaryotes that have cell walls made of cellulose. They develop from multicellular embryos and carry out photosynthesis using the green pigments chlorophyll a and b.

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Germination

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the process by which a plant grows from a seed. The most common example ofgermination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm. In addition, however, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the growth of hyphae from fungal spores, is also germination.

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2 Plant Generations

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Haploid Gametophyte and Diploid Sporophyte. All plants have a gametophyte stage and a sporophyte stage.

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Gamete

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Eggs and Sperm- recall the gametes are haploid cells that fuse together to produce a new diploid individual.

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Haploid Gametophyte

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gamete-producing plant

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Spore

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Reproductive cells that produce a new individual through mitosis.

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Diploid Sporophyte

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spore-producing plant

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4 Things Plants Need to Survive

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Sunlight, minerals and water, gas exchange, and the movement of water and nutrients throughtout the plant body.

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Sunlight

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Use the energy from the sun to carry out photosynethesis. Leaves are photosynthetic organs.

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Water and Minerals

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All cells require a constant supply of water. Minerals are absorbed while the plant absorbs water- minerals are needed for plant growth.

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Gas Exchange

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Plants require oxygen to support respiration as well as carbon dioxide to carry out photosynthesis. Plants must exchange these gases.

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Movement of Water and Minerals

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Plants take in w&m through there roots, but make food in their leaves. Most plants have specialized tissues that carry up w&m.

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Early Plants

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The first plants evolved from an organism much like the multicellular green algae living today. The first plants were still dependent on water to complete their life.

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Plant Kingdom: 4 Sections

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Flowering Plants, Cone-bearing Plants, Ferns and their relatives, and Mosses and their relatives.

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Bryophytes

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Include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.

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Life Cycle of Bryophytes

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The gametophyte is the dominant, recognizable stage of the life cycle and is the stage that carries out most of the plant's photosynthesis.

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Bryophyte: Dependence on Water

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For fertilization to occur, the sperm of a bryophyte must swim to an egg. Bryophytes therefore must live in habitats where water is available.

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Mosses

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Most common bryophyte. Grow most abundantly in areas with water.

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Gemmae

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Asexual reproduction. Small multicellular spheres that contain many haploid cells.

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Xylem

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form of vascular tissue in vascular plants that carries water upward from the roots to every part of the plant.

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Tracheids

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Key cells in Xylem

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Phloem

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second type of vascular tissue in vascular plants that transports solutions of nutrients and carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis.

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Ferns and their Relatives

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Seedless vascular plants include club mosses, horsetails, and ferns. Have roots, leaves, and stems.

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Ferns

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Have true vascular tissues, strong roots, creeping or underground stems called rhizomes, and large leaves called fronds.

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Life Cycle: Ferns

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Ferns and other vascular plants have a life cycle in which the diploid sporophyte is the dominant stage.

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Sporangia

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Haploid spores on the underside of their fronds in tiny containers produced by fern sporophytes.

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Sori

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groups of clusters of sporangia

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Gymnosperms

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One of two groups of seed plants. Seed plants that bear their seeds directly on the surfaces of cones. Include conifers, such as pines and spruces, cycads, very weird gnetophytes, and ancient ginkgoes.

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Angiosperms

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Second group of seed plants. Also called flowering plants. Bear their seeds within a layer within a layer of tissue that protects the seed. Include grasses, flowering trees and shrubs, and all flowers.

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Adaptations that allow plants to reproduce without water include:

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Flowers or cones, the transfer of sperm by pollination, and the protection of embryos in seeds.

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Cones

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seed-bearing structures of gymnosperms

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Flowers

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seed-bearing structures of angiosperms. Reproductive system of the flower. Flowers contain ovaries, which surround and protect the seed.

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Pollination

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The transfer of pollen from the male gametophyte to the female gametophyte.

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Pollen Grain

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In seed plants- entire male gametophyte is contained in this tiny structure. Carried to female gametophyte by wind, insects, birds, ect.

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Embryo

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The early developmental stage of the sporophyte plant.

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Seed

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an embryo of a plant that is encased in a protective covering and surrounded by a food supply. After fertilization, the zygote contained in the seed grows into a tiny plant.

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Seed Coat

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Surrounds and protects the embryo

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Gymnosperms- Cone Bearers

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Include gnetophytes, cynads, ginkgoes, and conifers.

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Fruit

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a thick wall of tissue surrounding the seed in angiosperms.

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Two Classes of Angiosperm

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Monocots and Dicots

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Monocots

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have one seed leaves/cotyledons in the plant embryo.

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Dicots

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have two seed leaves/cotyledons in the plant embryo.

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Woody Plants

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Characteristic of plant stems. Woody plants are made primarily of cells with thick cell walls that support the plant.

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Herbaceous Plants

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Plant stems that are smooth and nonwoody. Do not produce wood as they grow.

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3 Categories of Angiosperm Life Spans

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Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials

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Annuals

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Flowering plants that complete a life cycle within one growing cycle within one growing season

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Biennials

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Angiosperms that complete their life cycle in two years.

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Perennials

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Flowering plants that live for more than two years.

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Structure of Seed Plants

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The principle organs of seed plants are roots, stems, and leaves.

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Roots

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underground organs that absorb water and minerals. Anchor the plants to the ground, and hold them upright. Develop complex branching networks that penetrate the soil.

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Stems

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supporting structures that connect roots and leaves, carrying water and nutrients between them. The vascular tissue of stems lifts water from roots up to leaves and sends the products of photosynthesis from the leaves down to the roots.

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Leaves

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photosynthetic organs with one or more bundles of vascular tissues This vascular tissue is gathered into veins made of xylem.

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3 Tissue Systems

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Plants consist of three tissue systems: dermal tissue, vascular tissue, and ground tissue.

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Meristematic Tissue

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Fourth type of tissue is found only in the tips of shoots and roots. Responsible for the growth that takes place throughout the life of a plant. Source of all other tissues in the plant. Only plant tissue that produces new cells by mitosis.

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Apical Meristem

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A group of undifferentiated that divide to produce increased length of stems and roots.

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Dermal Tissue

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Outer-covering of a plant. Consist of a single layer of epidermal cells.

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Cuticles

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dermal tissue includes- A thick waxy layer covering the exposed outer surface of epidermal cells. Protects against water loss and injury.

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Trichomes

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dermal tissue includes- tiny cellular projections on the surface of some leaves. Help protect the leaf and give it a fuzzy feel.

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Root Hair Cells

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dermal tissue includes- provides a large amount of surface area and aid in water absorption.

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Guard Cells

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dermal tissue includes- Located on the undersides of leaves. Regulate water loss and gas exchange.

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Vascular Tissue Cell Types:

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Xylem consist of tracheids and vessel elements. Phloem consist of sieve tube elements and companion cells.

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Tracheids

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(In xylem) long, narrow cells with walls that are impermeable to water. The walls, however, are pierced with openings that connect neighboring cells to one another.

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Vessel Element

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(In xylem) Much wider than tracheids. Arranged end to end on top of one another. The cell walls at both ends are lost when the cells die, transforming the stack of vessels into a continuous tube through which water can move freely.

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Sieve Tube Elements

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(In Phloem) Arranged end to end like vessel elements. The end cell walls have many small holes- materials can move through these holes into adjacent cells.

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Companion Cells

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(In phloem) Cells that surround sieve tube elements. Supports the phloem cells and aid in the movement of substances in and out of the phloem stream.

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Ground Tissue

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Cells that lie between dermal and vascular tissues make up the ground tissue.

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Parenchyma

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Ground tissue consist mainly of this. Have thin walls and large central vacuoles. In leaves, these cells are packed with chloroplast and are the site of most of the plant's photosynthesis.

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Collenchyma

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In ground tissue. Thick and flexible cell walls that help support larger plants.

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Sclerenchyma

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In ground tissue. cells have extremely thick, rigid cell walls that make ground tissue tough and strong.

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2 Main Types of Roots:

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Taproots and Fibrous Roots

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Taproot

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(mainly found in dicots) Primary root grows long and thick while the secondary roots remain small.

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Fibrous Roots

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(mainly found in monocots) Branch to such an extent that no single root grows larger than the rest.

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Root Structure

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A mature root has an outside layer, the epidermis, and a central cylinder of vascular tissue. Between the two tissues lies a large area of ground tissue.

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Root hairs

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tiny projections that cover the epidermis of a root. Produce a large surface area through which water can enter the plant.

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Cortex

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Just inside the epidermis- spongy layer of ground tissue. Extends to another layer of ground tissue called the endodermis.

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Vascular Cylinder

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The endodermis completely encloses vascular tissue in a central region called the vascular cylinder.

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Root Cap

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Protects the root as it forces its way through the soil.

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Roots: Active Transport

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The cell membranes of root hairs and other cells in the root epidermis contain active transport proteins.

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Stems: 3 Important Functions

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They produce leaves, branches and flowers; they hold leaves up in the sunlight; and they transport substances between roots and leaves.

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Nodes

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Where leaves are attached to the stem.

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Internodes

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regions between the nodes

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Buds

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contain undeveloped tissue that can produce new stems and leaves.

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Monocot Stems

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Vascular bundles are scattered throughout the stem.

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Dicot Stems

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(and most gymnosperm) vascular bundles are arranged in a cylinder.

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Primary Growth of Stems is produced by:

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Cell divisions in the apical meristem. It takes place in all seed plants.

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Secondary Growth

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Pattern of growth in which stems increase in width. In Conifers and dicots, secondary growth takes place in lateral meristematic tissues called the vascular cambium and cork canbium.

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Vascular Canbium

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produces vascular tissues and increases the thickness over time.

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Cork Canbium

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produces the outer covering of the stems.

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Leaf Structure is:

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optimized for absorbing life and carrying out photosynthesis.

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Blades

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Flattened sections on leaves used to collect sunlight. Attached to a thin stalk called a petiole.

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3 Main Leaf Functions:

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Photosynthesis, Transpiration, and Gas Exchange.

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Photosynthesis in Leaves

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Mesophyll

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Specialized ground tissue that is the bulk of most leaves. Mesophyll cells are packed with chloroplast and carry out nearly all photosynthetic activity.

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Stomata

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pore-like openings in the underside of the leaf. Each stomata consist of two guard cell (specialized cells in the epidermis that control the opening and closing of stomata by responding to changes in water pressure)

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Transpiration

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The loss of water from a plant through it's leaves.

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Gas Exchange

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Leaves take in CO2 and give of oxygen during photosynthesis. When plant cells use they made, they take oxygen and give out CO2.

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Plant Stomata opening:

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Plants keep their stomata open just enough to allow photosynthesis to take place, but not so much that they lose an excessive amount of water.

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3 Factors in Water Transport

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Root pressure, capillary action, and transpiration provides enough force to move water through the xylem tissue of even the largest plant.

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Capillary Action

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The tendancy of water to rise in a thin tube. Water molecules are attracted to the walls of the tube.

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Nutrient Transport

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Movement from Source to SInk

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When nutrients are pumped into or removed from the phloem system, the change in concentration causes a movement of fluid in that same direction. As a result, phloem is able to move nutrients in either direction to meet the needs of the plant.

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4 Specialized Leaves of Flowers

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Sepals, petals, stamen, and carpels.

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Stepal

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Contained in the outermost circle of floral parts. Enclose the bud before it opens, and they protect the flower as it's developing.

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Petal

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Just inside the stepals. Brightly colored to attract insects and other pollinators.

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Stamen

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Male part of the flower. Made up by an anther and a filament.

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Carpel/Pistil

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Innermost floral part. Produce female gametophytes. Contains the ovary, style, and stigma.

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Seed Dormancy

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Period in the embryo is alive but not growing. Environmental factors such as temperature and moisture can cause a seed to end dormancy and germinate.

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Seed Germination

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Early growth stage of the plant embryo.