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361 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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3 components of the cell theory
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1.all organisms are composed of 1 or more cells
2.cells are the basic living unit of function and organization 3. all cells come from the division of existing cells |
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small membrane enclosed units filled with a concentrated aqueous solution of chemicals and endowed with the extraordinary ability to create copies of themselves by growing and dividing in two.
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cell
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particle consisting of nucleic acid (RNA and DNA) enclosed in a protein coat and capable of replicating within a host cell and spreading from cell to cell. Often the cause of disease.
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virus
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the total genetic information carried by a cell or an organism (or DNA molecules that carry this information)
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genome
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microscope that you can visualize the outer boundary of the cell and the nucleus with little detail in the cytoplasm
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light microscope
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Microscope:
*bring light source *set of lenses, arranged to focus the image *specimen must be thin enough for the light to pass through. |
light microscope
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Microscope:
*still unable to see the smallest components of the cell |
light microscope
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Microscope:
*can see surface structures |
scanning microscope
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Microscope:
*can see internal structures |
transmission electron microscope
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Mircroscope:
*uses electrons rather that light |
Scanning microscope
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Microscope:
*uses magnet rather than lenses |
scanning microscope
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Microscope:
*image is generated by the electrons bouncing off the specimen and revealing a 3-D image of the specimen |
scanning microscope
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Microscope:
*rather than 3-D image, electrons either bounce off the densely stained structures or pass through the specimen |
transmission electron microscope
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Microscope:
*dense area = dark *less dense =grays and white |
transmission electron microscope
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to preserve the tissue sample in "native" state
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fixation
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to replace cell's water with wax or plastic resin which provides support to the tissue
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embedding
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to produce thin "slices" of specimen
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sectioning
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to impact contrast: stains in light microscopy and heavy metals in EM
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staining
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a dense material often made of protein fibers embedded in a polysaccharide gel
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extracellular matrix
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cell with no nucleus and is always single celled
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procaryotes
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cells that have a nucleus and may be single celled or multicelled
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eucaryotes
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In a procaryotic cell, where is the DNA stored?
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just in cytoplasm
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what organelles are in the procaryotic cell?
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ribosomes, cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm and DNA
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what are the shapes of the procaryotic cell?
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spherical, rod, or corkscrew
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some procaryotic cells perform what to get energy?
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photosynthesis
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process where cell gets the energy they need for biosynthesis from sunlight
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photosynthesis
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what are the two domains of the procaryotic cells?
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eubacteria and archaea
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common name for procaryotic organisma, but mor precisely refers to members of the domain Bacteria. Most are single-celled organisma but multicellular forms exist.
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eubacteria
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one of the two divisions of procaryotes, typically found in hostile environments.
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archaea
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the major organelle of a eucaryotic cell, which contains DNA organized into chromosomes.
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nulceus
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double membrane surrounding the nucleus
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nulceaus envelope
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extremely long polymers that encode the genetic information of an organism
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DNA
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complex of DNA, histones, and nonhistone proteins found in the nuceus of a eucaryothic cell.
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chromatin
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long threadlike structure composed of DNA and associated proteins that carries part of all of the genetic information of an organism. especially evident in plant and animal cells undergoing mitosis or meiosis
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chromosome
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channel through the nuclear envelope that allows selected molecules to move between the nucleus and cytoplasm
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nuclear pore
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membrane-bound organelle, about the size of a bacterium, that carries out oxidative phosphorylation and produces most of the ATP in eucaryotic cells
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mitochondria
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what are the four components of the mitochondria?
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outer membrane
inner membrane that is highly folded to create cristae intermembrane space and matrix |
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what does mitochondria specially contain? (its own ____)
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DNA
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mitochondria reproduce how?
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by dividing into two
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Mitochondria is thought to be derived from bacteria because...
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they resemble bacteria in so many ways.
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relationship between mitochondria and bacteria
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symbolic relationship
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what is the power-house of the cell?
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mitochondria
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cells requiring large amounts of energy have numerous ____.
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mitochondria
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when organelle requires oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide, it is called____.
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cellular respiration
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with oxygen
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aerobic
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without oxygen
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anerobic
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how does mitochondria produce energy?
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it harnesses the energy from oxidation of food molecules
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what is the basic chemical fuel that powers the cell's activities?
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ATP
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without mitochondria, animals, fungi, and plants would be unable to do what? and what would it make poison to them?
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use oxygen to extract the maximun amount of energy from food molecules and it would also make oxygen poison for them.
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large green organelles that are found only in the cells of plants and algea.
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chloroplasts
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chloroplasts have double membrane and internal stacks of membranes containing the green pigment called
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chlorophyll
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what organelle enables plants to get their energy from the sun?
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chloroplast
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during photosynthsis, the trapped energy from the sunlight is located where?
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chlorophyll
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during photosynthsis, what is the by-product?
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oxygen
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like mitochondria, chloroplast contain their own ___, reproduce by _____ and are thought to be derived from ____, all creating a ______ relationship.
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DNA; dividing into two; bacteria; symbolic relationship
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an irregular maze of interconnected spaces enclosed by a folded membrane.
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ER
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the site at which most cell membrane components, as well as materials destined for export from the cell, are made.
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ER
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type of ER that synthesizes proteins
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Rough ER
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type of ER that contains ribosomes on surface
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Rough ER
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type of ER that synthesize and metabolize lipids
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smooth ER
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type of ER that has no ribosomes
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smooth ER
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membrane-bounded organelle in eucaryotic cells where the proteins and lipids made in the ER are modified and sorted then directs them to the exterior of the cell or to various other locations
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golgi apparatus
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small, irregularly shaped organelles in which intracellular digestion occurs, releasing nutrients from food particles and breaking down unwanted molecules for recycling or excreation.
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lysosomes
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small, membrane-enclosed vesicles that provide a contained environment for reactions in which hydrogen peroxide is generates and degrated
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peroxisomes
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vesicles that moves materials around the cell between other organelles
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transport vesicles
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when cells capture things outside the cell and move them in, and usually fuses with lysosomes
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endocytosis
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when cells move things outside the cell
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exocytosis
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contents of the main compartment of the cytoplasm, excluding membrane-bounded organelles. the cell fraction remaining agter membranes, cytoskeletal components and other organelles have been removed
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cytosol
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contents of a cell that are contained within its plasna membrane but, in case of eucaryotic cells, outside the nucleus
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cytoplasm
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place where ribosomes are found
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cytosol
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particle composed of ribosomal RNAs and ribosomal proteins that associated with messenger RNA and catalyzes the synthsis of protein
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ribosome
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organelle that allows for the formation of the peptide bond
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ribosomes
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what are the two types of ribosomes?
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type attached to ER; and type that are free in cyytoplasm
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what function do the ribosomes attached to the ER perform?
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export proteins
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what function do the ribosomes that are free in the cytoplasm perform?
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internal proteins
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elaborate network of filaments that function to give strenght, shape and direction movement to cells
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cytoskeleton
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3 filament types of cytoskeleton
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actin, intermediate, and microtubules
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type of filament in cytoskeleton that has the thinnest fibers and generated contractile force
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actin
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type of filament in cytoskeleton that strangthens the cell
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intermediate
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type of filament in cytoskeleton that has the thickest fibers in hollow tubes that rearranges to help separate chromosomes during cell divison
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microtublues
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cytoskeleton helps plants do what?
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move mitochondria around the cell
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both animals and plants use what to move organelles around during cell division
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cytoskeleton
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filament in cytoskeleton are constantly changing how?
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they assemble and disassemble
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ribosomes are responsible for what?
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protein synthesis
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cite of many chemical reactions
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cytosol
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filament in the cytoskeletion that becomes reorganized into spectacular arrays in dividing cells, where they help pull the duplicated chromosomes in opposiet directions and distribute them equally to the two daughter cells
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microtubulars
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model organism that is used extensively in labs because they grow rapidly and have DNA and protein much like humans DNA and protein
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E. coli
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Procaryotic model organism
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E. coli
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eucaryotic model organism
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saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast)
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model organism that is used by molecular biologist to study cell division cycle which is similar to humans
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saccharomyces cerevisiae
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model organism that has rigid cell walls and mitocondria but no chloroplasts
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saccharomyces cerevisiae
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model organism that is a small weed.
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arabidopsis
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model plant in cell biology
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arabidopsis
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model organism that grows well in the lab with thousands of offspring in 8-10 weeks
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arabidopsis
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model organism that is used to understand the genetics of flowering plants
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arabidopsis
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model organism that is the common fruit fly
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drosophila melanogaster
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model organisn that is used to study the development from a single fertilized egg to a multicellular organism with differeing cell types
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drosophila melanogaster
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model organism that is used for studying human development and disease
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drosophila melanogaster
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model organism that is used because of the precise time-line of each developmental stage
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C. elegans
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the model organism that was the first organism whose complete genome was sequenced
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C. elegans
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model organism that is used because can manipulate the genome and invesigate the role of these genes in the development and disease
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mouse
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model organism that is used because of the interest in medical disease research
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humans
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seven characteristics of a living thing
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1. are highly organized
2. displays homeostasis (maintaining a relatively constant internal environment) 3.reproduce themselves 4. grow and develop from simple beginnings 5.take energy and matter from the environment and transform it 6. respond to stimuli 7. show adapation to their environment. |
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your next-door neighbor has donated $100 in support of cancer research and is horrified to learn that her money is being spent on studying brewer's yeast. How could you put her mind at ease?
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*because the basic working s of cells are so similar.
*yeast cells are good because they are simpler than human cancer cells. *can grow yeast inexpensively and in vast quantities *can manipulate yeast cells geneticallay and biochemically more easily than human cells *helps discover rules about cells dividing which allows a basic understanding of cell division and how it is controlled therefore relating to how cancer cells can be controlled. |
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plants are composed of ___ cells.
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eucaryotic
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the number of what varies from one organism to another but is constant in all cell of the same organism
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chromosomes
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single-cells organisms that has a complex structure that has highly specialized parts
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protozoans
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organelles that contain enzymes that catalyze the breackdown of substances produced in the cytosol or taken up in the cell
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peroxisomes and lysosomes
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study of carbon compounds
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organic chemistry
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the study of the structures and reactions that occur in living organisms
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biochemistry
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the chemistry of life is almost exclusively based on chemical reactions in ____- that take place at the limited temperatures
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aqueous solutions
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long chains of compounds linked end to end
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polymers
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substance that cannont be broken down any further
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element
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"SPONCH"
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Sulfur, Phophate, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon, and Hydrogen
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the smallest part of an element that still retains its distinct chemical properties
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atom
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what are the characteristics of substances?
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depends on the atoms they contain and the chemical bonds that link them together to form molecules
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what are the charges? Nucleus? Electrons? Neutrons? and Protons?
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nucleus = postive, electrons = negative, neutrons = neutral, and protons = postive
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what are atoms held together by?
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positive and negative electrostatic attractions
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what kind of subatomic particles are in the nucleus?
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protons and neutrons
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the number of protons present in an atomic nucleus determines what?
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atomic number
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because the overall charge of an atom what subatomic particels are equal?
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protons and electrons
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what is an isotope?
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atoms that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
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what is atoms are physically distinctive but chemically identical?
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isotopes
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what is the mass of the protons and neutrons of an atom?
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atomic weight
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what is the mass of all the protons and neutrons of the molecule?
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molecular weight
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what is avogadro's number?
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6x10^23
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what is the weight of one proton?
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1/(6x10^23)
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what is a gram of a substance containing 6x10^23 molecules of the substance?
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one mole
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what is one mole of a substance in one liter of a solution?
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molar solution
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the atomic weight and molecular weight is relative to what?
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a hydrogen atom
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what is the mass of an atom specified in?
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daltons
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electrons moce in paths around the nucleus called ?
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orbitals
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what are the energy level of the atom that make up the number of orbitals?
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electron shell
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rule that says that the 1st electron shell can have 2 e-, the 2nd and 3rd shells can have 8 e-, and the 4th and 5th shells can have 18 e-.
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octet rule
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what determines chemical bond formations?
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electrons
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when are atoms "happiest"?
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when their outer shell is full
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atoms that have full electron shells prior to forming a chemical bond are ___.
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inert
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what type of atoms are inert?
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noble gases
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chemical affinity between two atoms that holds them together.
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chemical bond
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what 4 types of chemical bonds are found in living cells?
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ionic bond, covalent bond, polar bonds, and hydrogen bonds.
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bond formed when electrons are donated by one atom to another.
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ionic bond
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bond formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons.
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covalent bond
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bond where the pair oc electrons is shared unequally with one atom attacting the shared electons more than the other.
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polar covalent bond
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amount of electron gained lost or shared is the atom's ___.
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valence
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the outermost electron shell is called what?
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valence shell
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"SPONCH" usually do what with electrons?
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share electrons
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an atom carrying an electrical charge, either positive or negative
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ion
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positively charged ions
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cation
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negatively charged ion
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anion
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bonds held together by the attraction of their opposite charges. one being (+) and the other being (-).
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ionic bond
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ionic bond is what type of bond?
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noncovalent bond
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the hydrogen bond is what type of bond?
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noncovalent bond
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ionic bonds are highly ____ in water
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soluable
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the strenght of hydrogen bonds are significantly ___ when in water.
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reduced
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what bonds' strenght is not affected when in water?
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covalent bonds
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why will salt dissociate in water?
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because of favorable interaction between ions and water molcules.
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in covalent bonds the sharde electrons ____ the outer shell of both atoms and form a ____ between the atoms
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complete; permanent link
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what bond forms a permanent link?
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covalent bonds
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in a covalent bond, where is the cloud of electrons most dense?
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between the two nuclei
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a cluster of atoms held together by covalent bonds
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molecule
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in a covalent bond, the electron density helps to hold the nuclei together how?
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by opposing the mutual replusion between the like charges.
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the attractive and replusive forces are in balance when the nuclei are separated by a characteristic destance.
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bond length
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distance between the nuclei in a covalent bond is what?
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bond length
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a single covalent bond shares how many electrons?
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2 e-
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a double covalent bond shares how many electrons?
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4 e-
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a triple covalent bond shares how many electrons?
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6 e-
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what is the longest bond lenght in a covalent bond?
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single bond
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what is the shortest bond lenght in a covalent bond?
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triple bond
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what is measured by the amount of energy that must be supplied to break a bond?
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bond strength
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catalysts that carefully control the making and breaking of covalent bonds are called what?
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enzymes
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what are two covalent bond types?
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nonpolar and polar bonds
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what covalent bond has a uniform distribution of the charge along the bond?
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nonpolar bonds
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what covalent bond has an unequally distribution of the electrons in the bond that causes a charge within the molcule?
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polar bonds
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what does polar bonds usually involve?
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oxygen and nitrogen attached to hydrogen
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what does nonpolar bonds usually involve?
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between same atoms and between carbon and hydrogen
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polar covalent bonds interact through ___.
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electrical forces
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in a polar covalent bond the electron from H is pulled closer to the O or N nucleus because...
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O or N have a larger nucleus therefor stronger
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in polar bonds the partial positive and partial negative charges interact to ...
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hold fragments together
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what percent is water in a cells weight?
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70%
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in H2O, O is what charge and H is what charge?
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O is (-) and H is (+)
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a weak chemical bond between an electronegative atom auch as nitrogen or oxygen and a hydrogen atom bound to another electronegative atom.
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hydrogen bond
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hydrogen bond happens in the same molecule which gives the molecule what?
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stability
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mixture of a dissolved substance in a liquid
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solution
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dissolve substance
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solute
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liquid that does the dissoving
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solvent
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when the molecules separate from each other and becoming surrounded by water molecules
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dissolve
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water loving molecules
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hydrophillic
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water hating molecules
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hydrophobic
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polar molecules that can form H-bonds with water
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hyrophillic
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molecules that dissolve in water
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hydrophillic
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what compound also readily dissolves in water?
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ionic compound
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uncharged molecules that cannot form H-bonds in water
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hydrophobic
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molecules that do not dissolve in water
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hydrophobic
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commonly used term for a proton in aqueous solution, the basis of acidity.
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hydrogen ion
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hdrogen ions occurs where?
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in highly polar covalent bonds
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the H3O+ is precent in pure water at a concentration of
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10^-7M
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when H2O looses a H+, the remaining OH- is a
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hydroxyl ion
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the hydronium ion forms what kind of bond?
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not perminate bond
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the hydronium ion does what from one molecule to another?
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jumps from one to another
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solutes that release protons (H+) when dissolved in water forming H3O+ are
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acids
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strength of acid depends on what?
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how readily they give up protons to H2O
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solutes that accept a proton (H+) from H2O when dissolved in water
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bases
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bases are also called what?
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alkaline
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scale used to measure the acidity of a solution
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pH scale
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what is an acid acording to the pH scale and what is a base?
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pH 1-6.9 is acid
pH 7 is neutural pH 7.1-14 is base |
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what is the equation for pH?
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pH=-log[H+]
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carbon can form 4 stable bonds and generates large and complex molecules called
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organic molecules
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what are the 4 stable bonds carbon can form?
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alcohol, aldehyde, ketone, and carboxylic acid
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chemical group consisting of a hydrogen atom linked to an oxygen (alcohol)
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hydroxyl group
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carbon atom linked to an oxygen atom by a double bond and to a hydroxyl group.
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carboxyl group
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pair of atoms consisting of a carbon atom linked to an oxygen aton by a double bond
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carbonyl group
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two groups of compounds containing carbon and nitrogen. what are they?
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amines and amides
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what are they symbles for methyl, hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, phosphoryl, and amino groups?
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methyl (-CH3)
hydroxyl (-OH) carboxyl (-COOH) carbonyl (-C=O) phosphoryl (-PO3^2-) amino (-NH2) |
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C-N compound type that when in water combine with an H+ ion to become positively charged
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amines
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C-N compound type that are formed by combinging an acid and an amine. they are uncharged in water
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amides
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very large molecules made up of the 4 major building blocks
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macromolecules
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what are the building blocks for polysaccharides, fats/lipis/membranes, proteins, and nucleic acids
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polysaccharides - sugars,
fats/lipis/membranes - fatty acids, proteins - amino acids, and nucleic acids - mucleotides |
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what is the simlpest sugar?
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monosaccharide
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what is the CHO ratio in glucose?
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1:2:1
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what is 2 sugars linked?
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disaccharide
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what is 3-50 or so sugars linked together?
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oilgosaccharide
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what is many sugars molecules linked by various OH groups?
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polysaccharides
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sugars can exsit in either of two forms. what are they?
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D-form and L-form
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sets of molecules with the same chemical formula but different structures are called what?
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isomers
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miror-image pairs of molecules are called what?
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optical isomers
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monosaccharides can be linked together by what kind of bond?
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covalent bonds
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type of chemical reaction in which two organic molecules ecome linked to each other by a covalent bond with concomitant removal of a molecule of water.
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condensation reaction
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where does condensation occurs with two sugar monomers?
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between OH of 1st monomer and H of 2nd monomer
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cleavage of a covalent bond with accompanying addition of water, H- being added to one product of the cleavage and -OH to the other.
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hydrolysis
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what chemical reaction requires the input of H2O to break the covalent bond?
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hydrolysis
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small oligosaccharides can be linked to proteins and lipids to form what?
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glycoprotein and glycolipids
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fatty acids have two distinct regions. what are they?
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nonpolar hydrocarbon group and polar carboxyl group
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which region of a fatty acid is hydrophobic?
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hydrocarbon group
|
|
|
which region if a fatty acid is hydrophillic?
|
carboxyl group
|
|
|
molecules which have hydrophobic and hydrophillic regions are called what?
|
amphipathic
|
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|
no double bonds between its carbon atoms and contains the maximun possible number of hydrogens
|
saturated
|
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|
what region of a fatty acid is saturated?
|
hydrocarbon tail
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|
one or more double bonds along a fatty acid's lenght
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unsatuated
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|
double bonds in a fatty acid's length causes what?
|
kinks
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|
usually fatty acids are strored as a tricylglycerol, which is what?
|
three fatty acids attached to gylcerol molecule
|
|
|
a loosely defined collection with the common feature that they are insoluble in water and soluble in fat and organic solvents.
|
lipids
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|
|
lipids contain long _____ and _____ .
|
fatty acids (hydrocarbon chains) and isoprenes (steriods)
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|
|
what is the most important function of fatty acids in cells?
|
the construction of cell membranes
|
|
|
what makes up a membrane?
|
phospholipids (two fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol head)
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|
because of phospholipids amphipathic nature, they form layers that can combine tail to tail of another layer of phospholipids to form what?
|
lipid bilayer
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varied class of molecules with one defining property: they all posses a carboxylic acid group and an amino group, both linked to the same carbon atom.
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amino acids
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what is the carbon atom called that has a carboxylic group and an amino group forming an amino acid?
|
alpha-carbon
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polymers of amino acids joined head to tail in a long chain that is then folded nto a 3-D structure unique to each type.
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protein
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the covalent linkage between twp adjacent amino acids in a protein is called what?
|
peptide bond
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what is a chain of amino acids known as?
|
polypeptide
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polypeptide always has what two groups?
|
amino group and a carboxyl group
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|
|
what is the amino group called in a polypeptide?
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N-terminus
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what is a carboxyl group called in a polypeptide?
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C-terminus
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|
|
how many types of amino acids are commonly found in proteins?
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twenty
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like sugars amino acids exist as what?
|
optical isomers
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|
only what form of optical isomers is found in protein?
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L-form
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which end of a protein is where additional amino acids are added?
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C-terminus
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what does the C in C-terminus stand for?
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carboxly
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what does the N in N-terminus stand for?
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amino
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AA group chain: basic (3)
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Lysine - lsy - K
arginine - arg - R histidine - his - H |
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AA group chain: acidic (2)
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aspartic acid - asp - D
glutamic acid - glu - E |
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AA group chain: uncharged, polar and hydrophillic (5)
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asparagine - asn - N
glutamine - Gln - Q serine - ser - S theronine - thr - T Tyrosine - tyr - Y |
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AA group chain: nonpolar and hydrophobic (10)
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alanine - ala - A
valine - val - V leucine - leu - L isoleucine - Ile - I proline - Pro - P phenylalanine - Phe - F methionine - Met - M tryptophan - trp - W glycine - Gly - G cysteine - cys - C |
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|
DNA and RNA
|
nuleic acids
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a nitrogen containin ring compound linked to a five C sugar which is linked to 1 to 3 phosphate groups
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nuleotide
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nucleotides contain ribose is known as?
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ribonucleotide
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nucleotide containing deoxyribose is known as
|
deoxyribonucleotide
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|
nitrogen-containing ribose are referred to as
|
bases
|
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6-C ring; cytosine, thymine and uracil
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pyrimidine
|
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5-C ring attached to the 6-C ring; adenine and guanine
|
purine
|
|
|
short-term carrier of chemical energy.
|
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
|
|
|
formed through reactions that are driven by the energy release by the oxidative breakdown of foodstuff.
|
ATP
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nucleotides are linked together by what bond?
|
phosphodiester bond
|
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|
what is the most fundamental role of nucleotides in the cell?
|
the storage and retrieval of biological information.
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nucleotides serve as building block for the construction of what?
|
nucleic acids
|
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long polymers in which nucleotide subunits are covalently linked by the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the phosphate group attached to the sugar of one nucleotide and a hydroxyl group on the sugar of the next nucleotide.
|
nucleic acids
|
|
|
two main types of nucleic acids
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RNA and DNA
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the nucleic acid that is based on sugar ribose is known as ___ and contain what bases (4)?
|
RNA; A G C U
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the nucleic acid that is based on deoxyribose are known as ____ and contain what bases (4)?
|
DNA; A G C T
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double stranded, run in opposite directions, and are held together by H-bonds between bases A G C T
|
DNA
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____ is carried out with enzymes so that the right monomer or subunit is added in the appropriate order or sequence
|
reactions
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the polymer chain is not assemble at ramdon subunits; instead the subunits are added in a particular order which is called what?
|
seqence
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the precise shape of a macromolecule is calle what?
|
conformation
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bonds that if are formed in sufficent numbers, they will prevent the random movements of macromolecule due to thermal energy and the polymer may abopt preferentially one particular conformation
|
noncovalent bonds
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|
when NaCl is dissolved in water, the water molecule closest to the ions will tend to perferentially orient themselves so that their ____ atoms face the ____ ions and face away from the ____ ions.
|
oxygen ions face the sodium ions and face away from the chloride ions
|
|
|
a carbon atom contains six protons and six neutrons: what are its atomic number and atomic weight?
|
atomic number is 6; atomic weight is 12
|
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a carbon atom contains six protons and six neutrons: how many electrons does it have?
|
number of electrons is 6
|
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a carbon atom contains six protons and six neutrons: how many additional electrons must it add to fill its outermose shell? how does this affect carbon's chemical behavior?
|
four additional electrons; it makes carbon most stable when it shares 4 electrons with other atoms
|
|
|
a carbon atom contains six protons and six neutrons: carbon with an atomic weight of 14 is radioactive. how does it differ in structure from nonradioactive carbon? how does this difference affect its chemical behavior?
|
carbon 14 has 2 additional nuetrons in it nucleus. because the chemical properties of an atom are determined by its elecrons, carbon 14 is chemically dientical to carbon 12
|
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|
why could covalent bonds not be used in place of noncovalent bonds to mediate most of the interactions of macromolecules?
|
because covalent bonds are too stronge to allow macromolecules to associate and dissassociate
|
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|
for chemical reations to perform in cells they have to have chemical reactivity and precise chemical control, which is provided by specializd proteins called ___.
|
enzymes
|
|
|
what enzymes do to accelerate the chemical reactions within a cell
|
catalyzes
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the product in enzyme-catalyzed reactions is often the starting material in future reactions. it is called what?
|
substrate
|
|
|
long linear reaction pathways that are linked to one another, forming a complex web of interconnected reactions that enable the cell to survivie, grom and reproduce.
|
metabolic pathways
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|
pathways that break down foodstuff into smaller molecules, thereby generating both a useful form of energy fro the cell and some of the small molcules that the cell needs as building blocks
|
catatbolic pathways
|
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|
pathways that use the energy harnessed by catabolsm to drive the synthsidi of the many molecules that form the cell
|
anabolic pathways or biosynthetic
|
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|
catabolism and anabolism constitute the ____ of the cell
|
metabolism
|
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|
law that states that total amount of energy in the unicese must always be the same. cannot be created or distroyed but converted
|
1st law of thermodynamics
|
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|
law that states that systems in the universe will change spontaneously toward the arrangement with greater entropy (disorder can only increase)
|
2nd law of thermodynamics
|
|
|
thermodynamic qualtity measuring the degree of disorder
|
enthropy
|
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|
Part of the chemical bond energy is converted to ___ and is released into the area around the cell
|
heat
|
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|
While the cell becomes more ordered, the heat released to the environment causes ____ ; _____ is greater outside the cell than the _____ inside the cell
|
disorder; disorder; order
|
|
|
Energy in chemical bonds is converted to what?(random thermal motion of molecules)
|
heat energy
|
|
|
energy in its most disordered form
|
heat
|
|
|
what traps the energy of the sun in the chemical bonds of sugars
|
photosynthesis
|
|
|
what are the two steps of photosythesis?
|
1. light-dependent energy storage step, (Energy stored in ATP and NADPH, releases O2)
2. light-independent carbon fixation step to produce sugars(H2O and CO2 from air and make sugars) |
|
|
in both plants and animals, energy is extracted from food molecuel by a process of controlled burning or ___.
|
gradual oxidation
|
|
|
cells can obtain energy from sugars by allowing C and H atoms to combine with O2 to produce H2O and CO2
|
cellular respiration
|
|
|
what atoms circulate throught the biosphere (4)?
|
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur
|
|
|
____ and ____ care complementary processes
|
photosynthesis and resparation
|
|
|
___ can also be the process of electron transfer from one atom to another
|
oxidation
|
|
|
the removal of electrons
|
oxidation
|
|
|
the addition of electrons
|
reduction
|
|
|
Oxidation and reduction always occur ____ – Redox reactions
|
simultaneously in pairs
|
|
|
in redox reactions the removal of H+ is what?
|
hydrgenation reaction
|
|
|
in redox reaction the addition of H+ is called what?
|
dehydrodenation reaction
|
|
|
addition of oxygen
removal of electrons remocal of hydrogen |
oxidation
|
|
|
removal of oxygen
addition of electrons addition of hydrogen |
reduction
|
|
|
energy that can be extracted to do work or drive a cheical reaction
|
free energy
|
|
|
reactions with higher energy level to a lower energy level (spontaneous)
|
exergonic reactions
|
|
|
reactions with lower energy level to higher energy level (input of energy required)
|
endergonic reactions
|
|
|
exergonic reactions delta G is what compaired to 0 ?
|
(-) delta G < 0
|
|
|
endergonic reactions delta G is what compaired to 0?
|
(+) delta G > 0
|
|
|
Molecules in stable states need to have an input of energy to cause them to go to a lower energy state, so the energy to boost over energy barrier to go to a lower energy state is called what?
|
activation energy
|
|
|
a substance that can lower the activation energy reaction
|
catalyst
|
|
|
the push over the energy barrier is greatly aided by a specialized class of proteins called what?
|
enzymes
|
|
|
binds to 1-2 substrated and holds them in a way that greatly reduces the activation energy
|
enzymes
|
|
|
enyzmes have a unique pocket where only particular substrates can fit. this pocket is called what?
|
active site
|
|
|
when enzymes link 1 or 2 molecules called substrates and hold them in a way that greatly decreases the activation energy it is called what?
|
transition stateq
|
|
|
energetically favorable or unfavorable?
exergonic reactions endergonic reactions |
exer-favorable
ender-unfavorable |
|
|
for an endergonic reaction (delta G > 0) to occur, it has to be coupled with a second reaction with a ____ delta G so large that the net delta G of the entire process is ____.
|
negative; negative
|
|
|
change that depends on intrinsic characters of the reacting molecules under ideal conditions
|
standard free-energy change
|
|
|
forward and reverse reactions proceed at exactly equal rates;
ratio of reactant to product stays the same(no net change on the ratio) |
equilibrium
|
|
|
what is the symbol for equilibrium constant?
|
K
|
|
|
number that charcterizes the equilibrium state for a reversible chemical reaction
|
equilibrium constant
|
|
|
equation for equilibrium for a reaction A to B
|
K=[B]/[A]
|
|
|
The overall delta G° for a metabolic pathway is the sum of the delta G° in each of component steps
|
sequential reactions
|
|
|
An energetically unfavorable reaction can be driven by a second reaction which is energetically favorable
|
sequential reactions
|
|
|
substrates move throught the cytosol by what in order to be in contact with enzymes?
|
diffusion
|
|
|
When the substrate collides with the enzyme active site, they form ____ by multiple weak interactions (H-bonds, ionic bonds, van der Waals interaction) until dissociated
|
enzyme-substrate complex
|
|
|
Eventually all active sites of enzyme are filled and at high [S] the reaction reaches what?
|
maximum value (Vmax)
|
|
|
Rate of reaction will depend on what? (how fast the substrate is processed to become a product and leave the active site)
|
turnover rate
|
|
|
the [S] at which the reaction is at ½ Vmax
|
Michaelis constant (KM)
|
|
|
*The lower the KM the ____ the E-S interaction
*The higher the KM the ___ the E-S interaction |
tighter; weaker
|
|
|
Energy released by catabolism is stored in the chemical bonds of what?
|
carrier molecules
|
|
|
what are three carrier molecules in the cell?
|
ATP, NADH and NADPH
|
|
|
the most important and abundant activated carrier in the cell
|
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
|
|
|
ATP is synthesized by adding a phosphate group to what in an energy unfavorable reaction?
|
ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
|
|
|
ATP can release the energy when it is needed by what?
|
hydrolysis
|
|
|
Process of transferring a phosphate group to another molecule is what reaction?
|
the phosphorylation reaction
|
|
|
Enzyme that performs the phosphorylation reaction is what?
|
a kinase
|
|
|
ATP hydrolysis can be coupled with what?
|
energetically unfavorable reactions
|
|
|
activated carriers that carry high-energy electrons and H+
|
NADH and NADPH
|
|
|
what does NAD stand for?
|
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
|
|
|
what does NADP stand for?
|
nicotinamide adenine dinuleotide phophate
|
|
|
what on the ribose can cause different shapes between NADH and NADPH and therefore they can interact with different enzymes?
|
the phosphate group
|
|
|
what operates with enzymes that catalyze anabolic reactions – synthesis reactions, usually unfavorable?
|
NADPH
|
|
|
what usually works in catabolic reactions that generate ATP through the breakdown of food particles
|
NADH
|
|
|
what is an activated carrier molecule that brings in 2 carbon molecules in the biosynthesis of larger molecules
|
Acetyl Coenzyme A (acetyl coA)
|
|
|
polymers are synthesized from monomer subunits by ____ reaction which is energetically unfavorable because it need energy input
|
condensation reactions
|
|
|
condensation reactions needs energy input, which is usually obtained from what?
|
hydrolysis of ATP
|
