Biology Of Disease Sem 2

Front 1

What is the most common symptom of CHD?

Back 1

Angina

Front 2

Characteristic symptoms of angina?

Back 2

Heaviness/tightness in centre of chest

May spread to arm, neck, face, back

Front 3

Why does angina occur?

Back 3

arteries narrowed to the point that not enough oxygen reaches the heart during high demand

Front 4

Briefly describe angioplasty

Back 4

insert balloon via catheter

inflate to widen narrow/obstructed BVs

Front 5

Briefly describe HDL cholesterol

Back 5

fraction attached to proteins that remove cholesterol in the liver (from tissues)

low levels associated w high atherosclerosis risk

Front 6

MI is caused by what?

Back 6

blockage of a coronary artery leading to death of part of heart muscle

Front 7

Briefly describe heart failure

Back 7

syndrome where heart is unable to pump blood to meet body's demands (due to damage/overwork)

Front 8

Briefly describe LDL cholesterol

Back 8

fraction attached to proteins that carry cholesterol to tissues

high LDL associated with atherosclerotic developlment

Front 9

Brief definition of stroke?

Back 9

sudden and sustained loss of an aspect of brain function most commonly caused by interruption of cerebral blood flow

Front 10

Factors influencing SA node heart control?

Back 10

Activity of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves

Plasma epinephrine

Front 11

Properties of arteries?

Back 11

Endothelium, SM and CT

Muscular

Highly elastic

Front 12

Properties of capillaries?

Back 12

Endothelium

Thin walled

Highly permeable

Front 13

Arterioles are responsible for what?

Back 13

blood flow to organs

major sites of resistance

Front 14

Severity of CHD can be influenced by what?

Back 14

Location of atherosclerotic plaque

Front 15

Which stages are central to both cancer and CHD (particularly atherosclerosis)?

Back 15

Cell migration, adhesion, invasion

Proliferation/apoptosis

Angiogenesis

Front 16

Atherosclerosis is a disease of which vessel type?

Back 16

Arteries

May rarely be seen in grafted veins

Front 17

Main difference between LDL and HDL components?

Back 17

LDL has apoprotein B

HDL has apoproteins A-I

Front 18

Potential causes of endothelial injury?

Back 18

Circulating endotoxins, viruses

hypoxia

cigarette smoke products

hypertension/mechanical stress

specific endothelial toxins e.g. homocysteine

Front 19

Atherosclerosis treatment options?

Back 19

CA bypass

Angioplasty

Stents

Drugs

Front 20

Possible drugs used in atherosclerotic treatments?

Back 20

thrombolytic agents

statins

anticoagulants

anti-platelet drugs

Front 21

Plasminogen activators are used therapeutically for what?

Back 21

AMIs and PEs

Front 22

How does warfarin work?

Back 22

anticoagulant - prevents reduction of oxidised vitamin K

blocks gamma carboxylation by preventing recycling of vitamin k

Front 23

How do statins work?

Back 23

HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor (rate limiting step)

Synthesis inhibition causes upreg of LDL receptor synthesis

Greater LDL clearance from plasma to liver

Front 24

Hypertension can be defined as?

Back 24

sustained elevation of arterial bp

Front 25

Why can hypertension be dangerous?

Back 25

can be asymptomatic until late in course

increases risk of CHD, stroke and PVD

effects are at least significant if not fatal

Front 26

Control of arterial BP depends on interaction of:

Back 26

Cardiac output

peripheral resistance

Front 27

cardiac output is determined by?

Back 27

product of heart rate and stroke volume

Front 28

Main effects of Angiotensin II?

Back 28

elevates arterial BP by increasing PR and circulating blood volume

Front 29

How does ATII increase PR?

Back 29

Vasoconstriction - direct effect on vascular SM

Stimulation of vasomotor centres in brain

Promote catecholamine release from adrenal medulla - increase HR and contraction strength

Front 30

How does ATII increase circulating BV?

Back 30

Stimulates adrenal cortex>aldosterone release

Increases Na uptake from DCT

Draws water with it

Front 31

Why is elevated diastolic BP considered critical?

Back 31

represents increased peripheral resistance

Front 32

What are the types of hypertension?

Back 32

Primary/Essential - no specific underlying cause identified

Secondary - associated w specific underlying disease resulting in increased arterial BP

Front 33

Which is the most common type of hypertension?

Back 33

Primary

Front 34

What is the most common cause of secondary hypertension?

Back 34

decreased renal blood flow

triggers RA mechanism, increasing BP

Front 35

What are the two clinical courses of hypertension?

Back 35

benign

malignant

Front 36

pathological evidence of hypertension in the heart?

Back 36

hypertrophy

Front 37

pathological consequence of hypertension in the brain?

Back 37

haemorrhage

Front 38

pathological consequences of hypertension in the kidneys?

Back 38

progressive ischaemia of the nephron

later destruction of glomeruli

consequential atrophy of renal tubules

progressive CRF

Front 39

pathological consequences of hypertension in the eyes?

Back 39

retinal haemorrhage or exudate which may lead to blindness

Front 40

Types of angina?

Back 40

Stable and Variant

Front 41

Types of cardiomyopathy?

Back 41

Dilated congestive

Hypertrophic

Restrictive

Front 42

Adenohypophysis is found where?

Back 42

anterior pituitary

Front 43

neurohypophysis is found where?

Back 43

posterior pituitary

Front 44

the pineal gland is involved in regulating what?

Back 44

sleep

Front 45

what causes goiter formation?

Back 45

lack of iodine - t3 and 4 still made but can't be released

Front 46

what is the parathyroid gland involved in regulation of?

Back 46

calcium

Front 47

alpha and beta pancreatic cells produce what?

Back 47

glucagon and insulin

Front 48

delta and f pancreatic cells produce what?

Back 48

delta - somatostatin

f - pancreatic polypeptide

Front 49

Which cells secrete epinephrine/norepinephrine?

Back 49

adrenal medulla chromaffin cells

Front 50

zona reticularis cells secrete what?

Back 50

androgens

Front 51

zona fasciculata cells secrete what?

Back 51

glucocorticoids, mainly cortisol

Front 52

zona glomerulosa cells secrete what?

Back 52

mineralocorticoids, mainly aldosterone

Front 53

Common infections that may be seen with diabetes mellitus?

Back 53

boils/carbuncles

pyelonephritis infections

vaginal candidiasis

Front 54

Individuals with the SRY gene will develop as what? Why?

Back 54

Males

SRY gene codes for the protein TDF

Front 55

What provides tissue for gonads in embryos?

Back 55

Mesenephros

Front 56

how do ovaries/testes develop in foetus?

Back 56

SRY genes produce TF > acts on sertoli cells > testes develop

SRY genes absent - DAX-1 unopposed > genital ridge develops as ovary

Front 57

What mutation causes an embryo to develop as intersex?

Back 57

mutation in PG-21 receptor on Wolffian duct androgen receptors

Front 58

Primary amenorrhea could be defined as?

Back 58

lack of menstruation by 16 years old

Front 59

Secondary amenorrhea can be defined as?

Back 59

abscence of menstruation for at least 3 cycles

Front 60

Key characteristics of PCOS?

Back 60

anovulation

increased androgen levels

polycystic ovaries

Front 61

Definitions for posture, stance and gait?

Back 61

posture - position of body

stance - relation of feet to position of rest of body

gait - describes movement during locomotion

Front 62

Movement disorders can be recognised by...

Back 62

disruption of any combination of posture, stance or gait

Front 63

2 classifications of movement in movement disorders?

Back 63

hyperkinetic

hypokinetic

Front 64

4 cardinal signs of parkinson's disease?

Back 64

tremor

akinesia

rigidity

loss of postural reflex

Front 65

tremor can be defined as?

Back 65

contraction of agonist and antagonist muscles which can occur around any joint and may do so in a rhythmic manner

Front 66

akinesia can be described as?

Back 66

difficulty in initiating and carrying out purposeful movements

Front 67

rigidity could be described as?

Back 67

increased resistance to passive movement, fairly equal in flexors and extensors and present throughout the range of movement

Front 68

Stage one of Parkinson's disease is characterised by?

Back 68

unilateral disease

Front 69

types of tremor?

Back 69

postural

familial

intention

Front 70

How could chorea be defined?

Back 70

class of abnormal movements which are individual, brief, purposeless sudden jerks

Front 71

What causes tardy dyskinesia?

Back 71

chronic exposure to neuroleptic medication

Front 72

spasmodic torticollis could be described as what? what is the most common manifestation?

Back 72

partial/segmented dystonia

turning of neck

Front 73

what is hemiballismus?

Back 73

abnormal involuntary movements involving arm and leg on one side

Front 74

what is athetosis?

Back 74

inability to maintain normal hand posture

Front 75

Components of the basal ganglia?

Back 75

dorsal striatum

ventrolateral + ventral anterior thalamic nuclei

centromedian nucleus

Ext + int globus pallidus

Substantia nigra

Front 76

Components of the dorsal striatum?

Back 76

caudate nucleus and putamen

Front 77

components of the substantia nigra?

Back 77

pars reticulata - outer

pars compacta - inner

Front 78

Motor loop consists of?

Back 78

BG

Thalamus

motor cortex area 6 and 4

Front 79

input stage of the basal ganglia?

Back 79

striatum

Front 80

outputs of basal ganglia?

Back 80

internal globus pallidus

substantia nigra pars reticulata

Front 81

regulation regarding basal ganglia and components?

Back 81

substantia nigra pars compacta

Front 82

which receptors predominate in the direct pathway?

Back 82

d1

Front 83

which receptors predominate in the indirect pathway?

Back 83

d2

Front 84

most neurons in the basal ganglia are...

Back 84

inhibitory - use GABA as neurotransmitter

Front 85

which neurons in the basal ganglia are not inhibitory?

Back 85

STN neurons - use glutamate as NT

Front 86

what links to the start of both the direct and indirect pathways?

Back 86

substantia nigra pars compacta

Front 87

how is dopamine delivered to treat parkinson's disease?

Back 87

combination of l-dopa and carbidopa

Front 88

ventricle disarrhthymias can be linked to what?

Back 88

stress

circulating hormones

Front 89

what are the phases of general adaptation syndrome?

Back 89

alarm stage

resistance/adaptation

exhaustion

Front 90

Selye defined what 3 components of physiological stress?

Back 90

exo/endogenous stressor initiating the disturbance

chemical/physical disturbance produced by stressor

body's adaptational response

Front 91

the limbic system is an extension of what?

Back 91

the olfactory system

Front 92

a real stressor causes the response to start in...

Back 92

the limbic system or

specific sensory system

Front 93

a perceived stressor causes the response to start in

Back 93

the limbic system

Front 94

Meningeal artery tear is generally caused by what?

Back 94

temporal fracture

Front 95

TBI can lead to cell death via which intracellular systems?

Back 95

necrotic pathway

apoptotic pathway

autophaogcytosis

Front 96

what is the function of atrial natiuretic peptide?

Back 96

decrease bp by increasing salt excretion

Front 97

thirst control via loop of which components?

Back 97

kidney water reabsorption

blood volume/osmloarity

hypothalamic adh release

Front 98

peripheral chemoreceptors are located where? what do they respond to?

Back 98

carotid body

primarily pO2 changes

Front 99

central chemoreceptors are located where? what do they respond to?

Back 99

brainstem

primarily pCO2 changes

Front 100

Define inspiratory reserve volume

Back 100

max volume inhaled at end of quiet inspiration

Front 101

define expiratory reserve volume

Back 101

max vol expired at end of quiet expiration

Front 102

define residual volume

Back 102

air remaining in lung after max exp effort

Front 103

which of the lung volumes can't be measured by spirometer? Why?

Back 103

residual volume

only measures change in lung volumes

Front 104

what is the total lung capacity?

Back 104

sum of all 4 volumes

Front 105

what is functional residual capacity?

Back 105

air remaining after quiet expiration

erv+rv

Front 106

what is inspiratory capacity?

Back 106

max inspired volume after quiet expiration

irv+tv

Front 107

what is vital capacity?

Back 107

irv+tv+erv

Front 108

what is fev1?

Back 108

forced expiratory volume in 1 second

Front 109

what does fev1 reflect?

Back 109

airway narrowing

affected in disorders with increased airway resistance eg asthma

Front 110

fev1 and fvc can be used to distinguish between what?

Back 110

obstructive and restrictive patterns of disease

Front 111

what does pefr measure?

Back 111

existence and severity of airflow obstruction

Front 112

When does frc increase? why?

Back 112

in copd

increased rv

Front 113

when does pefr decrease?

Back 113

obstructive disease

Front 114

airflow is determined by?

Back 114

pressure gradient over airway resistance

Front 115

what generates the pressure gradient in lungs?

Back 115

difference between atmospheric and intralveolar pressure

Front 116

copd describes what group of disorders?

Back 116

chronic bronchitis

asthma

emphysema

Front 117

3 main pathological features of asthma?

Back 117

bronchospasm

mucus plugging

mucosal oedema

Front 118

what forms CL crystals?

Back 118

crystallised lysophospholipase

enzyme produced by eosinophils

Front 119

what is compliance?

Back 119

change in volume over change in pressure

Front 120

synthetic renal functions include which substances?

Back 120

EPO

Renin

vitamin d3

Front 121

3 elements of the renal filtration barrier?

Back 121

endothelium

basement membrane

podocytes

Front 122

GFR is equal to what?

Back 122

product of net ultrafiltration pressure and ultrafiltration coefficient

Front 123

GFR is proportional to what?

Back 123

body surface area

Front 124

filtration fraction equals..?

Back 124

gfr over rpf

Front 125

Methods for autoregulation of RPF and GFR?

Back 125

Myogenic Mechanism

Tubulo-Glomerular Feedback

Front 126

What interconnects the layers of the GIT?

Back 126

Plexuses

Front 127

What are the three submucosal layers?

Back 127

Epithelium

lamina propria

muscularis mucosae

Front 128

What are the three intrinsic nerve plexuses?

Back 128

submucosal

myenteric

subserous

Front 129

Pepsinogen is secreted by which cells?

Back 129

chief cells/peptic cells

Front 130

Peptic ulcer causes include

Back 130

acid secretion

NSAIDs,

Pepsin activity

H pylori infection

Front 131

H pylori adherence is mediated by what?

Back 131

specific glycolipid receptors in antral region

Front 132

What are the two gastric forms of adenocarcinoma?

Back 132

diffuse

intestinal

Front 133

Atherosclerosis risk factors with a genetic component?

Back 133

Family history

Male

Obesity

Metabolic syndrome

Hypertension

Front 134

Atherosclerosis risk factors with an environmental component?

Back 134

Smoking

Diet/alcohol/obesity

Infection

Stress

Physical inactivity

Front 135

Common components of LDL and HDL?

Back 135

cholesterol, ester of cholesterol

phospholipid

triglyceride

Front 136

Which heart pathological indicator is a poor prognostic factor in hypertension?

Back 136

left ventricular hypertrophy

Front 137

Why are cerebral and retinal vessels susceptible to haemorrhage in hypertension?

Back 137

lack structural support compared to those of other tissues

Front 138

Evidence of PVD?

Back 138

delayed or absent peripheral pulse

Front 139

How is acute coronary syndrome diagnosed?

Back 139

ECG

inflam markers - C-reactive and amyloid-A proteins

Front 140

What may be used to stabilise clots prior to angioplasty?

Back 140

Platelet glycoproteins IIIA and IIB

Front 141

Cardiomyopathies can be defined as?

Back 141

progressive disorders impairing function of muscular walls of ventricles

Front 142

A viral cause of cardiomyopathy?

Back 142

Cosackie Virus B

Front 143

Akinesia is commonly seen in which movements during PD?

Back 143

Walking

masking of faces

reptilian stare

Front 144

Rigidity is commonly demonstrated in which manner during PD?

Back 144

cog wheel rigidity in the arms

Front 145

Which reflexes may be lost in PD?

Back 145

threats to postural reflex

glabellar

Front 146

Tests that may be used to distinguish between types of tremor?

Back 146

finger to nose

archimedes screw

Front 147

causes of intention tremor?

Back 147

cerebellar disease

MS

Front 148

Factors affecting insp/exp reserve volumes?

Back 148

Current volume

Lung compliance

Muscle strength

Comfort, posture, flexibility

Front 149

Factors affecting airflow through lung?

Back 149

pressure gradient

airway resistance

Front 150

Relation of airflow to pressure gradient and airway resistance?

Back 150

Directly proportional to pressure gradient

Inversely proportional to airway resistance

Front 151

Maintenance of airway size during quiet respiration?

Back 151

parasympathetic nervous system maintains muscle tone

acetycholine main neurotransmitter

Front 152

Why is airflow reduced during COPD?

Back 152

asthma + CB narrow airways - increased resistance

emphysema causes loss of elastic recoil - reduced outflow pressure

Front 153

Types of asthma?

Back 153

Extrinsic - type 1 hypersensitivity reaction

Instrinsic - non-immune triggers

Front 154

Physiological changes during the alarm phase of stress response?

Back 154

upreg of energy use, mobilise glycogen

decrease digestion+urine prod, redistribute blood

increased resp rate

sweating

adr/na release

Front 155

Physiological changes in the resistance phase of stress response?

Back 155

Hypothalamus stimulates AP

causes release of GH and ACTH

results in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid secretion

Front 156

Where are endorphins released from?

Back 156

AP in response to CRH from hypothalamus

Front 157

Aetiology of PD?

Back 157

Cerebral mitochondrial dysfunction

Genes

Toxic collection of heavy metals

Front 158

Other motor disorders of the BG?

Back 158

Drung-induced parkinsonism

Vascular parkinsonism

Post encephalitic parkinsonism

Front 159

Location of extradural haematoma?

Back 159

between dura and skull

Front 160

what are the layers of the dura mater?

Back 160

periosteal

meningeal

Front 161

location of subdural haematoma?

Back 161

between arachnoid and dura mater

Front 162

location of intracerebral haematoma?

Back 162

in brain matter itself

Front 163

Pathological indicators of DAI?

Back 163

Retraction balls

Gliosis

increased number of supporting cells

Front 164

Factors that can affect blood pressure drop?

Back 164

CO

PR

Blood viscosity

Blood volume

Front 165

Where is prolactin produced?

Back 165

anterior pituitary

Front 166

Where is oxytocin produced?

Back 166

poster pituitary

Front 167

Example of a drug that may be used in a drug eluting stent?

Back 167

Sirolimus - previously used to prevent rejection post transplant

Front 168

Electrical charge on albumin at physiological ph?

Back 168

negative

Front 169

GFR is equal to?

Back 169

net ultrafiltration pressure x ultrafiltration coefficient

Front 170

Why is there no direct ways to measure GFR?

Back 170

actual value is the sum of all individual nephrons

Front 171

Transmission of H pylori?

Back 171

faeco oral

Front 172

Omeprazole may be used to treat H pylori - what is its function?

Back 172

proton pump inhibitor

Front 173

Methods of hormone release?

Back 173

Circulating

local - autocrine and paracrine

Front 174

Types of hormones?

Back 174

water soluble

lipid soluble

Front 175

Mechanisms of action of lipid soluble hormones?

Back 175

bind to surface receptor - rapid response

bind to cytoplasmic receptor - transcription

enter nucleus, bind receptor - transcription

Front 176

Mechanism of action for water soluble hormones?

Back 176

2 messenger/cascade system