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52 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Leaf Section
-on top and bottom are the cuticle layer and the epidermal cells.
-in the middle are the mesophyll cells
-on the bottom are the stomates which let carbon dioxide and oxygen pass in and out
Mesophyll Cells
-Chloroplasts are in mesophyll cells
-two kinds: palisade cells and spongy parenchema
-most photosynthesis is done in palisade cells
Chloroplasts
-inside are stroma and grana, where photosynthesis occurs
Granum
-stack of pancake shaped membrane-enclosed structures called thylakoids
-multiple thylakoids in 1 granum
Thylakoid
-chlorophylls and carotenoids are on the outer membrane of the thylakoids.
-photons from sunlight hit the pigments, electrons are "knocked" loose, and they energize the process of photosynthesis
-the membrane and space inside it is where light dependent reactions occur
Stroma
-where light-independent reactions occur
Stomate Opening and Closing
-guard cells that are like fluid-filled balloons
-when pumped up, the cells are turgid and the stomate is open
-when fluid is released, the cells are flaccid and the stomate is closed
How Plants Grow
-increase size of already-existing cells through water uptake
-by adding new cells through cell division (mitosis) where there is meristem tissue
Meristem tissue
regions of actively dividing, undifferentiated cells
Grass (Monocot) Growth
-have intercalary meristem tissue which allows them to elongate
-do not grow at tips
-This is an evolutionary adaptation to survive constant grazing
-no cambium-can't enlarge bundles
-palm trees can't make trunks big-no cambium
Woody Plant Growth
-increase in girth via cell division at the cambium layer
-when one cambium cell divides in two, one of the daughter cells remains a part of the cambium and the other becomes either phloem (and eventually bark) or xylem (and eventually wood)
-as tree increases in girth, more cambium cells are needed (because circumference increases) and division of the cambium layer in plane creates these cells
Cambium
-layer of cells whose division produces xylem cells and phloem cells
Tree Rings
-when tree is actively growing there is lots of water so cells are large
-as water becomes less available, cells become smaller and then nonexistent-which is where dark lines form and separate the rings
-only occurs with trees that have distinct growing season
Xylem
-all wood
-dead cells that conduct water and nutrients
-eventually become clogged and nonfunctional and are called "heartwood"
Phloem
-inner bark
-functional phloem cells are alive
-sugars move from source areas to sink areas
-cells eventually become bark and aren't functional anymore
Hypotheses of water movement in plants
1. Individual cells act as pumps (people didn't know xylem was dead)
2. Water rose through tubes through capillary action-if tube is narrow enough, water will move up automatically
3. Maybe roots are exerting pressure that pushes water up
Tests of hypotheses of water movement in plants
1. Cut roots, put cut end into solution of poison, if you kill cells responsible for moving water up, that poison shouldn't go up tree-solution did go up to leaves and that's where movement stopped, roots not needed, not action of living cells, leaves crucial
2. would water go up 350ft? no, only 40 cm
3. roots already found not to work in #1
Transpiration
-evaporation of water from leaf surfaces
-water from xylem enters air spaces of the leaf and also diffuses into mesophyll cells.
-water exits the leaf by diffusion mainly through stomata
-cools leaf due to evaporative cooling
Cohesion-Tension model of water movement in plants
-water evaporates from moist cells walls, exiting through stomates
-this makes leaf water potential more negative, which pulls more water from the xylem in leaf veins
-water molecules cohere to each other, which allows the column of water to move up the xylem in response to this tension
-as the column of water is pulled upward, more water moves into the root cells by diffusion
How Redwoods Get Water From Fog
-roots mainly at surface of soil
-water does NOT come in through stomates
-fog water condenses on surfaces, redwoods' needles create lots of surface area=fog collectors
-that water falls to ground where roots at surface are ready to take in the water
How Tall Trees Can Grow
-if water molecules separate, then there is a bubble and bottom doesn't move, and the column breaks
-past a certain point, tension is too much and the column will break
-tallest a tree can get 122-130 meters-tallest tree is close to this
Changes in Morphology at Tree Tops
-all about distance from roots, not so much about sunlight, it all has to do with water potential
-cells very small, very thick walls
-photosynthetic surfaces-tiny stomates, which keeps them from losing water, but also less CO2 uptake
Coastal Redwoods
-rainfall at lowest and fog at highest during growing season
-1/3 of all water from fog
-if fog days were less, than growth would decrease because of less water, which would mean less fog collection=downward spiral
Photosynthesis Equation
6HO + 6CO₂ = C₆H₂O₆ + 6O₂
Photosynthesis: What it does
-Process by which solar energy is captured and delivered to every living thing on earth
-Carbon source
-What generates oxygen that most non-producers need to have
-Energy
-Set of biochemical processes by which plants acquire energy from sunlight and fix carbon from the atmosphere
Light-Energy
-can travel through space
-can bend
-photon is unit of energy, comes from sunlight, hits plant, makes photosynthesis possible
Light Dependent Reactions
-In thylakoid membrane, in the presence of light
-sunlight excites the electrons in chlorophyll
-the electrons are passed to energy carrier molecules
-the lost electrons are restored to chlorophyll by the splitting of water, with oxygen released as a by-product
Light Independent Reactions
-in the stroma, with no light required
-CO₂ molecules are joined to form partial sugar molecules
-this joining requires energy from energy carrier molecules
-partial sugar molecules are assembled (outside the chloroplast) into glucose and other carbon storage molecules
Relationship between LDR and LIR
-LDR reactions "charge up" the energy carrier molecules
-the energy from these molecules is needed to carry out carbon fixation in the LIR (and the energy carrier molecules are "discharged"
Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen
-get in through stomates on bottom of leaves
-plant controls this by opening/closing stomates
Carbon fixation
-carbon containing molecules are created by carbon dioxide
-takes place in LIR in the stroma using the energy from the LDR
Respiration
Energy in C-C bonds
Photosynthesis-light
-uses red and blue light
-light is needed to begin photosynthesis
-photons excite electrons
Reproduction
-making a copy
-Copies can be perfect or imperfect.
-Sex (the mixing of genes from two individuals) is not a necessary
prerequisite for reproduction.
-An individual’s characteristics are determined by “nature” (genes)
and “nurture” (environment) acting together.
-Genes contain the “recipes” for making all the molecules a living
organism contains, and all the chemical reactions it carries out.
-Different individuals of the same species contain somewhat
different versions of the same genes.
-Each of an individual’s cells contain the same genes. (If you could
grow a new individual from one cell, that would be a perfect copy.)
What determines individual's characteristics
-nature and nurture.
-"nature"=genes
-"nurture"=environment
-genes made of DNA
-genes are recipes for creating all the molecules contained in living organisms
-different individuals (even of the same species) have somewhat diff. genes
-within individual, every cell contains the same genes
Cloning
-make new individual from single cell
-in animals cloning is difficult and ethically controversial
-in plants, many routinely reproduce via cloning (asexual or vegetative reproduction)
-important agricultural tool
-plant cloning generates no ethical controversy
-produces perfect copies
Sexual Reproduction
-produces imperfect copies
-evolved because it gave plants the ability to adapt to changing environments via evolution
-each of two parents contributes half of their genes to an offspring
How eggs and sperm are produced
-DNA is organized into multiple chromosomes
-Different species have different characteristic numbers of chromosomes
-Each individual contains a pair of each type of chromosome, one member of each pair inherited from each parent
-Diploid cells contain two of each type of chromosome
-Haploid cells contain one of each type of chromosome
-functional organism must have right number of chromosomes
-so that the union of egg and sperm doesn't inflate the number of chromosomes in the offspring, eggs and sperm have half the usual number of chromosomes
-the process of egg and sperm production is called meiosis
Diploid Cells
-Diploid cells contain two of each type of chromosome
-in humans, this is the stage their cells are in most of the time
-Mosses and ferns only spend part of their life here
Haploid Cells
-Haploid cells contain one of each type of chromosome
-in humans, and most other animals, only time in this stage is eggs and sperm
-mosses and ferns spend part of their life in this stage
Cell Division
Mitosis: the "normal" type of cell division, used when organisms are growing, creates perfect copies and maintains chromosome number
Meiosis: the type of cell division that produces eggs and sperm, cuts chromosome number in half
Reproduction in Gymnosperms
-the sporophyte (2N) generation is the dominant one
-no flowers
-meiosis takes place in separate male and female cones, both one the same individual tree
-"Gametophyte" (1N) stages: female gametophyte= egg and surrounding seed tissue, male gametophyte: pollen grains
-pollen travels from male to female cones via wind
-the seeds are "naked," exposed to environment, on the outside of scales on the female cones
-no fruits
Reproduction in Angiosperms
-all angiosperms make flowers
-the sporophyte generation is dominant
-meiosis takes place in anthers and ovules
-"Gametophyte" stages: female gametophyte=egg and other cells, male gametophyte=pollen grains
-pollen carried from male to female cones by wind, insects, birds or mammals, or even water
-seeds enclosed in a fruit formed by the (2N) ovary walls
-the seeds contain endosperm (lunchbox) that is 3N: 2 haploid gametophyte cells and 1 pollen nucleus
-seeds germinate to form new plants
Gender Expression in Angiosperms
1. Some species have perfect flowers (i.e. both male and female parts)
2. Some species have separate male and female flowers=red alders make flowers in clusters called catkins
3. Some species have both male and perfect flowers=bigleaf maple
4. Some have separate male and female individuals, each with one kind of flower=oregon ash has separate male and female trees
Human Cloning Difficulty
-in adult stage any cell at any time will have certain genes turned off-what differentiates between nose cell, heart cell, etc.
-exception is embryonic stem cell
Chromosome
-A gene is a stretch of DNA that provides instructions for the
assembly of a molecule.
-One chromosome contains
hundreds of genes, lined up end-to-end.
-Different species have different numbers of different chromosomes
-human has 23 different kinds
-And each cell actually has 2 times this number -- because one of each kind was inherited from the individual’s mother, and one of each kind was inherited from its father.
Homologous Chromosomes
-"matched pair"
-one chromosome came from this individual's mother, one from their father
-both contain the same genes, but possibly different versions of those genes (called alleles)
Non-homologous Chromosomes
-not a "matched pair"
-contain entirely different genes
-may have come from different parents or from the same parent
Mitosis
-makes perfect copies of a cell
-cell division that occurs during an individual's growth
- In mitosis, each double-stranded chromosome is independent
- At the end of the first division, mitosis produces 2 cells identical to the original.
-preserves the original chromosome number
-"daughter cells" are identical copies of the cell that produced them, with TWO of each kind of chromosome
Meiosis
-makes imperfect copies of a cell
-cell division that makes eggs and sperm
-in meiosis the homologous
chromosomes pair up and then separate.
-Meiosis produces 2 cells that have half as many chromosomes as the original, but that are still double-stranded.
-cuts the number of chromosomes in half
-"gametes" (eggs and sperm) contain only ONE of each kind of chromosome
Fruit
-mature ovary
-protection
-dispersal (by wind, through
explosion of seeds)
-attraction of animal dispersers
-The seeds contained in fruits germinate to form new plants
3 Main Reasons for Timber Jobs Lost in the 1980s
1. Dramatic increase in harvest rates in 1960s. Led to reduction in harvest rate in subsequent years-many remaining trees too small to harvest.
2. Logging companies were getting rid of jobs to mechanization.
3. Logs from PNW were shipped "raw" to Asian ports-those millers lost jobs