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Exercise 2
Functional Groups, Organic Molecules, Buffers, and Dilutions
Six Most Abundant Elements in Life
Sulfer (S),
Phosphorus (P),
Oxygen (O),
Nitrogen (N)
Carbon (C), and
Hydrogen (H)
pH
A measure of hydrogen ion concentration equal to -log[H⁺] and ranging in value from 0 to 14.
Buffers
Helps living systems to stabilize and maintain normal pH levels.
Colavent Bonds
These result in relatively stable molecules that do not dissociate in aqueous (water) environments. These stable molecules can serve as monomers (building blocks or subunits) for the synthesis of larger dimers (2 monomers) or polymers (chains of many monomers).
Functional Groups
Clusters of atoms bonded to the carbon backbone of the molecule and are most commonly involved in chemical reactions. Biological molecules are classified according to these.
Hydroxyl
Draw
Carbonyl
A. Aldehyde
Draw
All hide the H to to to a ketone.
Carbonyl
B. Ketone
Draw
Carboxyl
Draw
Amino
Draw
Phosphate
Draw
Pooh 3 ways
Sulfhydryl
Draw
quiet time
Biologically Important Organic Molecules
Glucose, Fructose, Glycerol, Glycine (amino acid)
Glucose (chain)
Draw
Fructose (chain)
Draw
Glycerol
Draw
Glycine (amino acid)
Draw
Glucose (ring)
Draw
Fructose (ring)
Draw
Bogen's Universal Indicator
Changes color at specific pH end points:
Pink = pH 4
Yellow = pH 6
Green = pH 7
Blue = pH 9
Violet > pH 9
Spectrophotometer
A device which will determine the percent transmittance (passing through) and/or absorbance (optical density) of various wavelengths of light through a sample.
Dilution Equation
C₁V₁=C₂V₂
Number of Electrons Needed to Fill Valance Shell
Sulfur 2
Phosphorus 3
Oxygen 2
Nitrogen 3
Carbon 4
Hydrogen 1
Parts of Model Kit - Balls
Represent an atom
Sulfur - Orange (2 holes)
Phosphorus - Blue (5 holes)
Oxygen - Red (2 holes)
Nitrogen - Green (3 holes)
Carbon - Black (4 holes)
Hydrogen - Yellow (1 hole)
Parts of Model Kit - Sticks and Springs
Each wooden stick is used to represent each single covalent bond, and two springs are used to represent each double covalent bond. A stick with a free end is used to represent the attachment point of the functional group to the carbon backbone "R". No open sticks represents a molecule.
Procedure for Testing for Buffers
1. Obtain two beakers and label them A and B.
2. Pipette 10 ml of an unbuffered pH 4 solution into Beaker A.
3. Pipette 10 ml of an buffered pH 4 solution into Beaker B.
4. Add three drops of Bogen's Universal Indicator to each beaker.
5. Note the color.
6. Slowly add 1 M of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) one drop at a time to beaker A, swirling the beaker between each drop, until you detect a color change to violet.
7. Record the number of drops required to change the color to violet.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 with beaker B.
pH Indicator
Bogen's Universal Indicator
Did it take more drops to change the pH of the buffered or unbuffered solution?
It took more drops to change the pH of the buffered solution.
Do buffers resist pH changes in either direction?
Yes, it took more drops to change from acid to base then back again then the unbuffered solution.
Do acids act to raise or lower pH?
Acids lower the pH.
What effect do bases have?
Bases raise the pH.
Calibrate the Spec 20
See pages 2-13 and 2-14
Reading with the Spec 20
See pages 2-14
What relationship exists between concentration of dye and % light transmittance?
The more dye, the less transmittance.