Biology Final

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Darwin's Two Observations

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1. Members of a population vary in their inherited traits.

2. all species can produce more offspring than their environment can support, and many of these offspring fail t survive and reproduce.

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Homology

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Traits shared by common descent from a common ancestor

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Fossil Record

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shows the evolutionary changes that have occurred in different groups of organisms

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Biogeography

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evidence from the geographic(spatial) distributions of species.

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analogy

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natural selection can cause similar traits to appear in unrelated groups. this is termed CONVERGENT evolution.

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population

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group of interbreeding individuals in space and time.(individuals of the same species)

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drift

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result of random processes. important in small populations.

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migration

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gene flow between pops. can pring new alleles and thus traits.

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gene flow

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the transfer of alleles into or out of a pop due to the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes.

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speciation

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the process by which a species arises from an ancestral species

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biological species concept

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a species is a group of pops whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable offspring but do not produce fertile offspring with members of other groups.

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allopatric speciation

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gene flow is interrupted when a pop is divided into geographically isolated subpops.

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sympatric speciation

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rare. occurs within a pop, gene flow is reduced btw individuals by such factors as sexual selection and habitat differentiation.

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taxonomy

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how organisms are named and classified.

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binomial nomenclature

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the two part format of the scientific name for living organisms.

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the order of hierarchical classification

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domain, kingdom, phlyum, class, order, family, genus, species.

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phylogeny

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the evolutionary history of a species or group of species. based on shared HOMOLOGIES

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shared ancestral characters

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homologies shared with distant ancestors. ex: mammals have vertebrae and jaws

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derived characters

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homologies that are evolutionary novelties of particular clades. ex: mammals have hair and mammary glands. we rely on this to infer evolutionary relationships

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prokaryotes

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split into archaea and bacteria. give info about original forms of life. tells us about evolutionary transition to eukaryotes.

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the 3 shapes of prokaryotes.

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cocci, bacilli, spiral. all surrounded by cell wall composed of PEPTIDOGLYCAN(sugars linked by proteins).

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gram-positive

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simple walls with a lot of peptidoglycan. stains purple.

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gram-negative

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complex, outer membrane with less peptidoglycan. tends to be more toxic. stains pink.

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capsule

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sticky coat of polysaccharide or protein

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fimbriae

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attachment pili. proteinaceous spines.

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taxis

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actively moving toward or away from stimulus. positive phototaxis: moving towards light.

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endospore

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resting state of prokaryote locomotion. can remain dormant but viable for centuries.

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prokaryotes

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do not have a nucleus. has a nucleoid region. may have accessory dna...plasmids(replicate indep. of chromosome).

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ways of recombination in prokaryotes

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transformation- pick up DNA from environ.

transduction- viruses(phages) carry bacterial DNA

conjugation- one way transfer of DNA

horizontal gene transfer- recombination btw species.

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conjugation process

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donor and receiver connected by SEX PILUS(mating bridge). F PLASMIDS is passed (f+ to F- site), which carries the F FACTOR and the plasmid genes.

Hfr cell: F factor on chromosome: high frequency recomb. chromosome passed and recombined.

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photoautotroph

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energy source: light

carbon source: CO2, HCO3 or related compound

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chemoautotroph

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energy source: inorganic chemicals(NH3, Fe2)

carbon source: CO2 HCO3 or related compoud

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photoheterotroph

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energy source: light

carbon source: organic compounds

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chemoheterotroph

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energy source: organic compounds

carbon source: organic compounds

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exotoxins

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proteins secreted by certain bacteria and other organisms

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endotoxins

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are lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membrane for gram negative bacteria. are only release when the bacteria dies and the cell wall breaks down.

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types of symbiosis

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mutualism(both benefit)

commensalism(one benefits as other remains the same)

parasitism(one benefits as one is harmed)

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r plasmids

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have genes for enzymes that destroy antibiotics. increasingly common due to selection

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bioremediation

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using bacteria to breakdown sewage, chemical spills, etc.

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genetic engineering

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use cellular machinery to make chemicals we can use such as vitamins and antibiotics.

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4 major clades of archaea

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extremophiles-lovers of extreme conditions

halophiles- high saline and salt environ.

thermophiles- high temp environ.

methanogens- use CO2 and H2, species in anaerobic marshes. produces energy and methane waste.

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protists

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single celled eukaryotes (mostly). primary and secondary endosymbiosis.have contractile vacuoles to expel water. can be autotrophs, heterotrophs, or mixotrophs.

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endosymbiosis

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way in which eukaryotes arose.

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plastid

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in secondary endosymbiosis. acquired by engulfing photsynthetic eukaryote. proof with NUCLEOMORPH (remnant of eukaryote genome within 3rd membrane).

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four main protist lineages

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excavata

alveolates, stramenopiles, rhiziaria (SAR)

archaeplastida

unikonta

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excavates

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protist lineage. mostly parasitic. most are flagellated. broken down into DIPLOMONADS + PARABASALIDS, and then EUGLENOZOANS.

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euglenids

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mostly free living mixotrophs. in the excavates lineage and euglenozoans branch.

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kinetoplastids

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free living predators and parasites. in the excavates lineage and eulenozoans branch.

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stramenopiles

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protist lineage. hairy flagella. consist of DIATOMS, GOLDEN ALGAE, and BROWN ALGAE.

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diatoms

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stramenopiles lineage. photosynthetic algae, with silica(glass) wall around cell.

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golden algae

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stramenopiles lineage.unicelluar or colonial mixotrophs. many species form protective cysts that can survive for decades.

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brown algae

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stramenopiles lineage. all multicelluar seaweeds and kelp.

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alveolates

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protist lineage. grouped together based upon shared presence of alveoli beneath the cell membrane. Lineages are CILIATES, APICOMPLEXANS, and DINOFLAGELLATES.

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ciliates

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alveolate lineage. cell covered in many short cilia rather than few long flagella.

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apicomplexans

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alveolate lineage. parasites with complex life cycles. ex: plasmodium, which causes malaria.

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dinoflagelates

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alveolate lineage. cellulose plates, with 2 flagella in groves. can cause neurotoxic shellfish poisoning.

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dinoflagellate

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protist lineage. crimson tide. causes crimson tide due to high concentrations of carotenoids.

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rhizarians

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protist lineage. amoeboid pseudopodia: cytoplasmic for locomotion, prey, capture. made up of FORAMINIFERANS, RADIOLARIANS, and CERCAZOANS.

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foraminiferans

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lineage of rhizarians. shell of calcium carbonate.

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radiolarians

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lineage of rhizarians. shell of silica, planktonic

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cercazoans

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lineage of rhizarians. most are parasites and predators. most important consumers of bacteria in aquatic and soil ecosystems.

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archaeplastida

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lineage of protists. includes the plants and related algae. what we study most in this class. consists of RED ALGAE, GREEN ALGAE, CHLOROPHYTES, AND CHAROPHYCEANS( and land plants)

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unikonts

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lineage of protists. composed of two major groups, based upon general dna. includes AMOEBOZOANS(slime molds), OPISTHOKONTS(unicellular and mulitcellular flagellate heterotrophs)(including fungi and animals)

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ecological role of dinoflagellates

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live in tissues of organisms in coral reefs, including coral and giant clams.

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ecological role of parabasalids

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symbionts in termite guts to break down cellulose.

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alternations of generations

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each generation gives rise to the other.

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plants

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cell walls of cellulose

evolved from single celled CHAROPHYTES

kingdom plantae= Embryophytes

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key features of plants

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alternation of generations

sporopollenin walled spores made in sporangia

multicellular gametangia

apical meristems(areas of growth on shoot and root tips)

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sporopollenin

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what makes the walls of plant spores tough and resistant to harsh environments.

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stomata

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specialized pores that allow exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen btw the atmosphere and the plant

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vascular tissue

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specialized cells that transport water, nutrients, etc.

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bryophytes

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non-vascular plants. liverworts, hornworts, and mosses. dominated by gametophyte but with prominent sporophyte.

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protonemata

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one cell thick. produced by spores by germination.

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in bryophytes

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sperm must swim through water to fertilize eggs in which plants? also, the sporophytes in this plant are dependant on parental gametophytes.

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sporangium

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capsule on a stalk. opens via peristome. releases spores gradually: spread by wind.

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sporophylls

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modified leaves bearing sporangia in vascular plants.

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seedless vascular plants (ferns)

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sporangia organized into sori on the sporophylls.

sporophyte stage larger than gametophyte stage.

sporophyte not dependent upon gametophyte.

leaves, roots, vascular tissue(xylem, phloem).

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the two extant phyla of seedless vascular plants

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lycophyta(more ancient)

pterophyta(horsetails, ferns, more closely related to vascular plants).

they formed the first forests.

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fungi

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multicelluar heterotrophs(absorb nutrients without ingestion unlike animals)

can be parasitic or mutualistic.

secretes enzymes that breakdown compounds.

single celled is yeast. multicelled has filaments called hyphae.

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cell structure of fungi

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filaments form masses: mycelia, increase surface area for uptake.

cell wall of chitin. divided by septa and undivided, coenocytic fungi.

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hyphae

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the network of tiny filaments in fungi that make up the body.

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septa

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the hyphae in fungi is separated by this. generally has large pores to allow ribosomes, mitochondria,a and even nuclei to flow from cell to cell

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mycelium

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fungal hyphae form and interwoven mass that infiltrates the material on which the fungus feeds.

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huastoria

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some fungal species have specialized hyphae in which the fungi use to extract nutrients from or exchange nutrients with their host plants.

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mycorrhizae

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mutualism with roots. fungi provides phosphorus, other nutrients, plant provides carbohydrates. all vascular plants have this.

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ectomycorrhizae

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type of mycorrhizae. form sheaths around roots. and typically grow into the extracellular spaces of the root cortex.

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arbuscular mycorrhizae

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extend branching hyphae through the root cell wall and into tubes formed by invagination of the root cell plasma membrane. haustoria.

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ways of sexual reproduction in fungi

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plasmogamy: fusion of cytoplasm

heterokaryon/dikaryon: 2 parental nuclei in 1 cytoplast( n+n )

karyogamy: fusion of nuclei (2n). spores(n) produced by meiosis.

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unikonts

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where fungi evolved from. furthermore, the opisthokonts.

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ascomycetes

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the clade in which there is the most fungal diversity. aslo called sac fungi, members of this group are common to many marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats. the defining feature is the production of spores (asci) during their sexual stage, most develop fruiting bodies, called ascocarps. they can also produce asexually by producing spores called conidia.

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basidiomycetes

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the clade with the 2nd highest fungal diversity. important as decomposers. basidium(a cell in which karyogamy occurs, followed immediately by meiosis). reproduce sexually with basidiocarps, which are commonly called mushrooms.

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mycosis

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harmful fungi. the general term for an infection in an animal by a fungal parasite. ex: ringworm, athletes foot.

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lichen

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a symbiotic association btw a photosynthetic microorganism and a fungus in which millions of photosynthetic cells are held in a mass of fungal hyphae.

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endophytes

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fungi or bacteria that live inside leaves or other plant parts without causing harm.

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tow types of seed plants

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gymnosperms(conifers)

angiosperms( 90% of the total plants)(flowering plants)

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seedless plants

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these plants are homosporous: which produce one kind of spore that usually gives irse to a bisexual gametophyte.

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seed plants

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these plants are heterosporous: which produce megaspores that give rise to female gametophytes, and microsporangia produce microspores that give rise to male gametophytes. each megasporangium has one megasport, as each microsporangium has many microspores.

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integument

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layer of sporophyte tissue. envelops and protects the megasporangium. gymnosperms are surrounded by one, as angiosperms usually have 2.

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seeds

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embryo+food supply in protective coat, desiccation resistant, long dispersal distance.

ovules and pollen. WATER NOT NEEDED.

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seedless plants

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flagellated sperm swim from male gametophyte(antheridium) to female gametophyte(archegonium).

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seed plants

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tiny male gametophyte transported to female gametophyte. microspore develops into pollen grain( male gametophyte in sporopollenin coat )

Pollination: transport by wind or animal to femal ovule.

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what does an ovule consist of in gymnosperm?

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megasporangium+megaspore+integument

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fertilization of female gametophyte in gymnosperm.

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sperm transported via pollen tube through micropyle. fertilization occurs and megaspore turns into female gametophyte, which produces the egg.

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angiosperms

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have seeds, flowers, and fruit.

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flowers

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sex organs made up of up to 4 rings of specialized leaves.

sepals, petals, stamens, carpels. sepals and petals are sterile as stamens(male part) and carpels(female part, key feature in determining angiosperms from gymnosperms) are fertile.

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fruits

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mature OVARY. variation in form: fleshy, dry, ect. aid in dispersal: can be carried by animals.

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stamen

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male flower-parts. anthers on filaments; produce pollen.

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carpels

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female flower part, produce female gametophytes. container in which seeds are enclosed.

sticky stigma binds pollen; style connects it to ovary(1+ovules).

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complete vs incomplete flowers

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flowers with all four organs vs flowers that lack one or more of these organs. ex: some lack stamens and some lack carpels.

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angiosperm life cycle

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female gametophyte has large central cell with 2 nuclei ( n+n ).

male gametophyte (pollen) has two haploid cells (generative and tube cells).

pollen adheres to stigma of carpal, pollen tube grows down within the style of carpal.

tube penetrates through the micropyle and discharges two sperm cells into female gametophyte(embryo sac). food supply for the seed.

pollen releases 2 sperm. 1 sperm fertilizes embryo, 1 fuses with 2 nuclei in central cell resulting in ENDOSPERM(3n).

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double fertilization

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in angiosperm life cycle. one fertilization event produces a zygote and the other produces a triploid cell, which is unique to angiosperms.

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endosperm

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is the food supply for the seed.

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cross pollination

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egg and sperm usually from different plants

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generative cell

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male gametophyte has 2 haploid cell in angiosperms. this cell divides and forms 2 sperm.

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tube cell

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male gametophyte has 2 haploid cells in angiosperms. this cell produces a pollen tube.

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co evolution

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animals are dependent on plants and vice versa. this of insects and flowering plants may explain their great diversity.

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vegetative growth

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two main systems being root system and shoot system.

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leaves

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main organs of photosynthesis

composed of blade and petiole(stalk)

veins: vascular tissue of these

conifer needles are in this group

can be modified for support, protection, etc.

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roots

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anchor, absorb minerals and water, store carbohydrates. two main types.

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taproot

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main vertical root from primary root, many lateral roots. good for tall plants.

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fibrous root

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no main root; lots of little branches; small plants

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root hairs

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increase surface area for absorption. extenstions of root epithelial(dermal) cells many diff kinds of modified roots to serve specialized purposes.

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adventitious roots

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root tissue emanating from stems or leaves (shoot system)

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shoot system

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functions above ground. reproduction and photosynthesis. stems, leaves, flowers.

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stems

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grow to increase the above ground volume occupied by branching thus facilitates dispersal of pollen and fruit; orients the plant in a way that maximized photosynthesis.

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stem parts

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alternating nodes (where leaves attach)

internodes (stem segments btw nodes)

primary growth via apical bud, with branches formed by axillary buds.

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apical dominance

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axillary bud growth inhibited by proximity of apical bud. stems may be modified for storage, asexual reproduction, etc.

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flowers

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part of the shoot system, but involved with reproductive growth as opposed to vegetative growth

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tissue systems

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plants are made up of three __ __ which are continuous throughout the organ systems of the plant

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dermal tissue system

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part of tissue system. external protective covering, first line of defense. epidermis with waxy cuticle.

periderm: protective outer tissue of woody plants

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vascular tissue system

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part of tissue system. internal transport btw shoot and root systems. physical support. xylem, phloem, stele.

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xylem

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vascular tissue system component. transports water+minerals from roots up to the shoots

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phloem

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vascular tissue system component. transports sugars from where they are made(leaves) to where they are needed(flowers, fruits, roots, etc.)

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stele

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xylem+phloem. vascular tissue system component. arrangement varies in roots(cylinder) and shoots(bundles)

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ground tissue system

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part of tissue system. various tissues that are neither vascular nor dermal; specialized, responsible for metabolic functions.

cortex: btw vascular tissue and dermal tissue

pith: w/in vascular tissue

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determinate vs indeterminate

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vertebrate growth is generally ___. grow is limited to embryonic/juvenile phase.

plant growth is generally __. made up of embryonic, juvenile, and adult organs. can keep growing and living until killed.

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annuals/biennials

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complete life cycles in 1 or 2 years

perennials: can live for years

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meristems

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perpetually embryonic tissue. can differentiate into other cell types.

what makes indeterminate growth possible.

two types

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apical meristems

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responsible for primary growth(increase in length) in the tips of roots and the apical and axillary buds of shoots. most growth in herbaceous plants. located behind the root cap: protects tip against soil, secretes lubricant

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lateral meristems

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cause secondary growth(increase in girth) in woody plants

cyclinders of cells that extend through stems and roots.

vascular cambium: adds 2 degrees vascular tissue-xylem

cork cambium: replaces epidermis w/ periderm

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stem cells, derivatives

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____ are new cells that retain role of cell division in meristems. ___ cells divide and differentiate into different kinds of tissues, it is from these cells that all plant tissues arise.

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3 diff zones of development; older cells further from the tip

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1. zone of cell division: meristem and immediate derivatives

2. zone of elongation: cells elongate, pushing tip forward up to 10x original length

3. zone of differentiation: cells mature to specialized cell types

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pericycle

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outer most layer of cells. lateral roots originate from the ___. keeps vascular cylinders continuous

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axillary bud meristems

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areas of meristem left behind by leaf primordia

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lateral stems

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arise from axillary bud meristems, not the vascular tissue as with lateral roots

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dermal

ground

vascular

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__ tissue: upper and lower epidermis. stomata. guard cells.

__ tissue: mesophyll=photosynthetic cells(space btw mesophyll allows for exchanges of gas)

__ tissue: branches throughout mesophyll; continuous w/ stem vascular tissue. surrounded by protective bundle sheath.

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morphogenesis

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specific tissues/organs must develop at specific places(pattern formation)

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polarity

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root to shoot axis. changes in this tells determines the fate of the cells.

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phyllotaxy

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how leaves arranged on stem. determines light capture.

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apoplast

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way of transport of water and solutes through plants. connected spaces outside living cells. cells walls open mesh of cellulose. inside of dead tracheids and vessels( xylem ).

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symplast

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way of transport of water and solutes through plants. connected spaces inside of cells. must get through selective barrier (plasma membrane). cells connected by plasmodesmata. includes phloem.

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transmembrane

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way of transport of water and solutes through plants. repeatedly crossing cell membranes. moving between the apoplast and the symplast.

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protoplast

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living part of the cell, including plasma membrane, that presses against the cell wall, creating turgor pressure. making pressure potential.

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aquaporins

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transport proteins for water. water moves through plant membrane faster than just diffusion.

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bulk flow

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movement of fluid by pressure, indep. of solute. larger diameter xylem and phloem.

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casparian strip

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waxy barrier that blocks apoplastic route; solutes must go through selective membranes of endodermis and enter symplast. from here, endodermis and living vascular cells export minerals to the xylem.

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translocation

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movement of photosynthetic products in the phloem sap through sieve tubes.

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eudicot

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two cotyledons. seeds vary in cotyledon development.

hypocotyl: lower part, connects to radical(embryonic root)

epicotyl: upper part, with immature leaves(embryonic shoot)

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monocot

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have only one cotyledon=scutellum

coleoptile: sheath surrounding embryonic shoot

coleorhiza: sheath protects embryonic root

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imbibition

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germination begins with the uptake of water, ___.

causes expansion, seed coat ruptures.

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eudicots

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radical emerges first, then hypocotyl.

hypocotyl leads epicotyl and cotyledons(seed leaves).

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monocots

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coleoptile(protects shoot) leads way up. shoot grows through.

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pericarp

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ovary wall becomes the __. thickened wall of fruit; other fruit parts shed.

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simple fruits

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from single or multiple fused carpels

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aggregate fruits

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from flowers with multiple flowers in an inflorescence. ovary walls fuse.

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accessory fruits

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incorporate other floral parts besides the ovaries

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abiotic vs biotic

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wind and water dispersed vs lots of fruits dispersed by animals

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fragmentation

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parent plant severed leads to two individuals. embryonic meristems facilitate to asexual reproduction by this.

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apomixis

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asexual reproduction. seeds produced by mitosis; no fertilization. ex: dandelions

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dioecious

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one sex or the other. chronologically or physically separate male and female parts

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etiolation

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modifications of growth form for the dark. ex: a potato in a cupboard or buried.

no leaves: a waste in the dark, and would probably get wrecked

no chlorophyll

energy put into elongation

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de-etiolation

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switch to typical above-ground morphology

green leaves "greening", roots.

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phytochromes

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etiolation and de-etiolation are mediated by these. a pigment that plants use to detect light.

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phototropism

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plant horomones developed from studies of __ in oat seedlings.

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auxin

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hormone in plant cell responses. isolated to elongate dark-side. any compound that promotes elongation of shoots; controls pattern formation

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cytokinins

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hormone in plant cells. works with auxin to promote division and differentiation. stimulates cytokinesis.

controls apical dominance

slow aging of organs (inhibit protein breakdown)

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ethylene

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hormone in plant cells that are produced in response to stress, including mechanical pressure; also in fruit and cells that die at maturity.

1) triple response (curves stem)

2) senescence (programmed death)

3) leaf abscission (leaf loss when water low)

4) fruit ripening (increase sugar, cell walls broken)

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photomorphogenesis

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change shape in response to light

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phototropism

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positive __ is growth towards light.

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phytochrome

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red light is especially important for seed germination, shading, activates __.

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photoperiodism

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a physiological response to day and night length, influences flowering time.

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gravitropism

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have statoliths to determine direction of gravity.

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thigmotropism

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plants respond to touch. rubbing plants regularly inhibits growth.

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blastula

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hollow ball of cells. internal cavity is a blastocoel

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gastrulation

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the zygote turns into a gastrula and the performs __, which is the invagination of the blastopore to form the beginning of the gut.

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direct development

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offspring looks like a little version of the parent. ex: mammals, some insects.

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indirect development

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young offspring (larvae) morphologically and ecologically diff than adult. must go through metamorphosis. ex: butterflies, some mollusks

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choanoflagellate

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animals most closely related to colonial __ protists. similar to choanocytes of sponges.

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ediacaran biota

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earliest large animal fossils

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oder of eras

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Paleozoic Era (Cambrian explosion) ended with extinction (end-permian extinction)

Mesozoic Era (age of dinosaurs) ended with wipeout (end cretaceous extinction)

Cenozoic Era (modern era) humans.

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animals

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have specific body plans as plants do not

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HOX gene

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animal development under control of this gene.

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aspects of body plans that provide insight into early animal evolution

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symmetry

tissue organization

body cavities

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sessile or planktonic

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animals that sit in one place or drift in water. usually have radial symmetry

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bilaterlly symmetrical

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the symmetry of animals with dorsal, ventral, anterior, and posterior end.

cephalization: having a front end (head) typical of animals that move under own power.

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gastrulation

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___ leads to tissue organization. asymmetrical animals lack tissues therefor don't have this. radial and bilateral symmetrical animals do.

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archenteron

Back 197

embryonic gut in result of gastrulation

Front 198

endoderm

Back 198

tissue lining gut in result of gastrulation

Front 199

ectoderm

Back 199

outer layer of cells in the nervous system in result of gastrulation.

Front 200

diploblasts

Back 200

radially symmetrical ___: only two tissue types.

basically a fancy gastrula

Front 201

triploblasts, mesoderm

Back 201

bilateral __ have a third germ layer: __.

forms all other organs btw gut and outer surface such as muscles, gonads, circulatory system.

Front 202

coelom

Back 202

in triploblastic animals. fluid-filled body cavity.

Front 203

coelomates

Back 203

in triploblastic animals. body cavity lined with mesoderm.

Front 204

pseudocoelomates

Back 204

in triploblastic animals. not completely lined with mesoderm, includes tissue derived from endoderm.

Front 205

acoelomates

Back 205

in triploblastic animals. lack a body cavity fluid filled body cavity serves as a hydrostatic skeleton to antagonize muscles.

Front 206

protostomes

Back 206

type of coelomate.

coelem forms solid masses of mesoderm; expand to filled blastocoel.

zygote cleavage is determinate spiral cleavage. gut develop: blastopore becomes the mouth

Front 207

deuterostomes

Back 207

type of coelomate.

mesoderm buds of endoderm of archenteron. zygote cleavage is indeterminate radial cleavage.

gut development: blastopore becomes anus

Front 208

bilateria

Back 208

group in which most animals belong to

Front 209

major groups of animal phyla

Back 209

porifera=sponges

cnidaria=jellyfish, sea anemones, coral

lophotrochozoa= flatworms, mollusks, segmented worms.

ecdysozoa=arthropods, nematodes

deuterostomia=echinoderms, chordates

Front 210

cnicaria

Back 210

phylum __. fancy gastrulas. radially symmetrical diploblasts.

two phases: medusa (mouth down, swimming, sexual stage). polyp (mouth up, sedentary, asexual stage).

no mesoderm, so no true muscles

Front 211

4 classes of phylum cnidaria

Back 211

hydrozoa

scyphozoa

cubozoa

anthozoa

Front 212

3 main groups of phyla around before the cambrian explosion. triploblastic. bilateral symmetry.

Back 212

lophotrochozoa

ecdysozoa

deuterostomia

Front 213

lophotrochozoa

Back 213

one group of bilaterians. contains annelida, mollusca, ectoprocta, rotifera, platyhelminthes, brachiopoda.

Front 214

platyhelminthes

Back 214

flatworms. acoelomates. trochophore type larvae (ciliated larvae). lack through-gut so it has gastrovascular cavity. unlike cnidarians, has organs to maintain osmotic balance.

protonephridia with cells called flame bulbs

mostly hermaphroditic.

Front 215

mollusks

Back 215

include taxa such as clams, snails, octopuses. 8 classes: polyplacophora, gastropoda, bivalvia, cephalopoda.

shell (except octopus)

radula

foot

mantle cavity

gonochoristic (separate sexes)

Front 216

lophophorates

Back 216

inderterminate radial cleavage, blastopore becomes anus. suspension feeders. ex: ectoprocta, brachiopoda.

Front 217

ecdysozoa

Back 217

arthropods, nematodes. all taxa molt their outer covering (go through ecdysis)

Front 218

arthropods

Back 218

type of ecdysozoa. covered by a jointed skeleton. chitin. gonochoristic

Front 219

nematodes

Back 219

type of ecdysozoa. long and cylindrical but unsegmented. diverse round worms.

Front 220

deuterostomia

Back 220

echinoderms, chordates. triploblastic, bilateral symmetry. vertebrates and invertebrates united in this one. two phyla:

echinodermata (starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars)

chordata (vertebrates(fish, frogs,chickens, apes) and related invertebrates)

Front 221

echinoderms

Back 221

part of deuterostomia. spiny skin. tube feet. broadcast spawning reproduction

Front 222

chordates

Back 222

deuterostomia part. all share certain traits:

Notochord (long flexible rod of cells)

hollow dorsal nerve cord (central nervous system)

pharyngeal slits (pharynx, gills, jaws)

post-anal tail (muscular tail extends past anus)

Front 223

chordates that lack vertebrae

Back 223

lancelets

tunicates (suspension feeders)

Front 224

2 clades of jawless vertebrates

Back 224

hagfishes

modern lampreys

Front 225

conodants

Back 225

lacked jaws. internal skeleton of cartilage. mineralized dental hooks

Front 226

chondrichthyes

Back 226

vertebrate with jaws (gnathostomes). unmineralized skeletons. buoyancy by storing oil in its liver.

Front 227

tetrapods

Back 227

"four legs" amphibians, reptiles, including birds and mammals. evolved from sarcopterygians.

Front 228

amphibians

Back 228

oldest tetrapod lineage.

Front 229

amniotes

Back 229

tetrapods with water-proof eggs. major innovation that got tetrapods fully on to land

extant clades:

1)reptiles (diapsids)

2)mammals (synapsids)

Front 230

synapsid

Back 230

mammals are __ amniotes.

Front 231

monotremes

Back 231

extant clade of mammals. egg-laying mammals; only in australia; no nipples but milk

Front 232

marsupials

Back 232

extant clade of mammals. mammals with a pouch. only in australia, north and south america. ex: possum

Front 233

eutherians

Back 233

extant clade of mammals. placental mammals. global. HUMANS.

Front 234

hominins

Back 234

20 extince species closely related to humans and chimps diverged from a common ancestor. share 99% DNA.

Front 235

physiology

Back 235

biological function; how things work

Front 236

epithelial tissue

Back 236

epithelium. closely packed cells lining surfaces. barrier against injury, infection, dehydration.

Front 237

simple squamous

Back 237

type of epithelial tissue. thin and leaky.

found: diffusion surfaces like blood vessels, lungs

Front 238

columnar

Back 238

type of epithelial tissue. tight cell-cell junctions.

found: where absorption is important. line intestines.

Front 239

stratified squamous

Back 239

type of epithelial tissue. layers of cells.

found: sloughed off as new cells arise. line abraded surfaces, mouth, vagina.

Front 240

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Back 240

type of epithelial tissue. columnar cells w/ varying height of cilia;

found: sweep mucus. esophogous.

Front 241

cuboidal

Back 241

type of epithelial tissue. built for secretion.

found: glands, kidneys.

Front 242

connective tissue

Back 242

bind and support other tissues of the body. provide support matrix for organs.

Front 243

loose connective tissue

Back 243

connective tissue. binds epithelium, holds organs in place.

collagen and elastin

Front 244

cartilage

Back 244

connective tissue. collagen fibers in protein-carbohydrate matrix; secreted by chondrocytes.

Front 245

fibrous connective tissue

Back 245

connective tissue. dense collagen fibers; tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone to bone)

Front 246

adipose tissue

Back 246

connective tissue. fat for storage, cushioning, and insulation.

Front 247

blood

Back 247

connective tissue. liquid matrix composed of plasma, red and white blood cells, and platelets.

Front 248

bone osteoblasts

Back 248

connective tissue. secrete collagen matrix that becomes mineralized.

Front 249

muscle and nervous

Back 249

___ and ___ tissue are the basis of animal behavior.

Front 250

nervous tissue

Back 250

tissue that converts external stimuli to electronic impulses, conduct impulses.

Front 251

glia

Back 251

associated cells that protect and nourish neurons

Front 252

muscle tissue

Back 252

contractile cells with actin and myosin filaments; most abundant, uses most energy. 3 types: skeletal= voluntary movements; striated

smooth= involun. movements; not striated

cardiac= involun. movements; striated

Front 253

nervous and endocrine

Back 253

__ and __ systems coordinate the actions of organ systems.

Front 254

nervous system vs endocrine system

Back 254

sends point to point messages, short duration. immediate responses, coordinating movement.

broadcast molecular signals, tissues respond, and longer duration. regulation of growth, development, reproduction, metabolism, digestion.

both maintain homeostasis.

Front 255

hypothalamus

Back 255

body's thermostat

Front 256

thermogenesis

Back 256

make more heat through muscle contraction in endotherms

Front 257

countercurrent exchange

Back 257

reduce heat loss through this process. fish use it. cooled blood of extremities flows back past warm arteries.

Front 258

acclimitization

Back 258

changing anatomy/physiology to better suit environment; reversible. ex: moose up a mountain.

Front 259

bioenergetics

Back 259

how animals allocate energy for different functions

Front 260

basal metabolic rate

Back 260

minimum metabolic rate. at rest, no stress. for non growing endotherms

Front 261

torpor

Back 261

physiological state of decreased activity and very low metabolic rates. ex: hibernation (during winter), estivation (during summer), daily (hummingbirds let temp. drop when inactive).

Front 262

essential nutrients

Back 262

whatever an animal can't synthesize. amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals

Front 263

vitamins

Back 263

two types. water-soluble and fat-soluble. organic compounds

Front 264

minerals

Back 264

any inorganic elements needed in various amounts.

Front 265

undernourishment

Back 265

shortage of food energy. body begins to break down own proteins, etc. once the sugars/fats exhausted.

Front 266

4 stages of food processing

Back 266

ingestion=eating

digestion=break down food to usable molecules.enzymatic hydrolysis.

absorption=cells take up digestive product

elimination= removal of unassimilated waste

Front 267

bulk feeders

Back 267

eat large pieces of food. most animals. humans.

Front 268

fluid feeders

Back 268

eat other organisms' body fluids; mosquitos

Front 269

filter feeders

Back 269

filter particles from water; whales

Front 270

substrate feeders

Back 270

ingest substrate, eliminate most of it; earthworms.

Front 271

accessory glands

Back 271

salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gall bladder are __ __.

Front 272

peristalsis

Back 272

waves of smooth muscle contraction

Front 273

sphincters

Back 273

segments isolated by __: muscular closures

Front 274

amylase

Back 274

enzyme that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen (carbohydrates) in mouth.

Front 275

mucin

Back 275

glycoprotein lubricant in mouth that protects lining of oral cavity and facilitates swallowing. protects against tooth decay.

Front 276

pharynx

Back 276

__ opens to 2 passage ways: trachea and esophagus.

Front 277

epiglottis

Back 277

cartilage flap that closes flap during swallowing

Front 278

esophagus

Back 278

connects the oral cavity to the stomach.

striated muscle: upper part; voluntary swallowing

smooth muscle: lower part; involuntary peristalsis

Front 279

HCl

Back 279

lowers pH of stomach to 2 (acidic) denatures proteins

Front 280

pepsin

Back 280

protease (breaks peptide bonds)

Front 281

parietal cells

Back 281

secrete H+ and Cl- separately

Front 282

chief cells

Back 282

secrete pepsinogen (inactive pepsin)

Front 283

small intestine sections

Back 283

duidenum, jejunum, and ileum

Front 284

duodenum

Back 284

site of digestion in the small intestine, receives secretions from the pancreas, liver and gall bladder.

pancreas: neutralizes acidic chyme, secretes proteases, amylases and nucleases

liver: produces bile; stored in gall bladder (lipid digestion)

Front 285

jejunum and ileum

Back 285

sites of absorption in small intestine. villi and microvilli increase surface area. nutrients move through epithelial cells.

Front 286

hepatic portal vein

Back 286

capillaries lead to the __ __ __ for processing by liver: controls chemical composition

Front 287

lacteals

Back 287

fat (triglycerides) components are too large to go through microvilli. they are processed in cells and sent to lymphatic system via __.

Front 288

large intestine

Back 288

recovers water in the alimentary canal. colon+cecum+rectum. connects to small intestine at T-junction: colon one way, cecum the other (pouch for fermenting unassimilated material)

appendix: extension of human cecum

Front 289

colon

Back 289

water reapsorption. ions pumped out of colon to draw out water.

Front 290

carnivores

Back 290

better developed incisors and canines

Front 291

herbivores

Back 291

broad molars for grinding. also have longer alimentary canals than carnivores.

Front 292

omnivores

Back 292

unspecialized teeth

Front 293

cellulase

Back 293

most animals lack this enzyme that breaks down cellulose of plant cell walls. some herbivorous vertebrates have mutualistic organisms in their guts.

Front 294

ruminants

Back 294

cows, sheet, etc.: 4 chambered stomach

Front 295

pancreas and liver

Back 295

___ and ___ control negative feedback

Front 296

circulatory systems

Back 296

facilitate exchange with the environment.

Front 297

open circulatory systems

Back 297

anthropods, most mollusks. circulatory fluid (hemolymph) in direct contact with organs; same as interstitial fluid.

advantages: lower pressures, can use fluid as hydrostatic skeleton, body movements help circulate.

Front 298

closed circulatory systems

Back 298

annelids, cephalopods, vertebrates. circulatory fluid (blood) in vessels, separate from interstitial fluid.

advantages: high blood pressure, faster delivery of O2, nutrients

Front 299

cardiovascular system

Back 299

composed of pumping heart with 2+ chambers

atrium: receives blood

ventricle: pumps blood away

Front 300

pulmonary circuit

Back 300

right side: to lungs, oxygen-poor blood to lungs

Front 301

systemic circuit

Back 301

left side: to body

Front 302

atrioventricular valve (AV):

semilunar valves:

heart murmur:

Back 302

between chambers

btw ventricles and arteries

defective valve leads to back-flow

Front 303

sinoatrial node:

Back 303

cause atria to contract, empty into ventricles

Front 304

atrioventricular node

Back 304

after .1s delay, ventricles contract

Front 305

lumen, endothelium

Back 305

all vessles (capillaries, arteries and veins) have and open __ lined by __.

Front 306

arteries

Back 306

layer of smooth muscle, then layer of elastic connective tissue.

Front 307

veins

Back 307

layer of smooth muscle and connective tissue.

Front 308

precapillary sphincters

Back 308

close off paths thru capillary beds

Front 309

lymphatic system

Back 309

network of small vessels that drains excess interstitial fluid: lymph

eventually returned to circulatory system

moves by smooth muscle contraction

Front 310

plasma

Back 310

90% water with dissolved salts, proteins, gases, wastes, horomones

Front 311

erythrocytes

Back 311

red blood cells. O2 transporter. lack nuclei, mitochondria, full of hemoglobin (oxygen transport protein)

Front 312

leukocytes

Back 312

white blood cells. perform various immune functions.

Front 313

platelets

Back 313

cell fragments involved in blood clotting

Front 314

clotting

Back 314

___: damage plugged by platelets and reinforced by fibrin protein

Front 315

partial pressure

Back 315

the fraction of the total pressure exerted by air.

Front 316

countercurrent exchange

Back 316

___ ___ of respiratory medium maintained by ventilation. Capillaries flow in opposite direction. removes 80% of dissolved O2.

Front 317

tracheal system

Back 317

insects. series of air tubes that branches throughout body. gas exchange does not involve circulatory system.

Front 318

lungs

Back 318

vertebrates. air in through nostrils (filtered, warmed, moistened), to larynx and into trachea. branches into 2 bronchi, which continue to branch into bronchioles, tiniest bronchioles end in alveoli (terminal sacs where gas exchange happens

Front 319

positive pressure breathing

Back 319

amphibians. push air in by shrinking oral cavity

Front 320

negative pressure breathing

Back 320

mammals. pull air in by expanding thoracic cavity with muscles and diaphragm (skeletal muscle) controlled by breathing control centers in brain by negative feedback

Front 321

Why is hemoglobin necessary?

Back 321

Necessary because O2 has low solubility in water.

Front 322

pathogens

Back 322

foreign invaders that try to co-opt organismal resources; cause disease. prokaryotes, eukaryotes, viruses.

Front 323

immune system

Back 323

necessary to avoid/limit infection. keep foreign invaders out. recognize self vs nonself once invaders inside. detection of non-self accomplished by molecular recognition.

Front 324

innate immunity

Back 324

active all the time. non-specific. found in all animals and plants.

inhibit/detect broad range of pathogens

first defense

only line of defense in invertebrates

Front 325

acquired immunity

Back 325

adaptive immunity: response enhanced by previous infection, highly specific.

only vertebrates

responds mostly strongly to pathogens it recognizes.

slower but more specific.

Front 326

humoral response

Back 326

antibodies defend against infection in body fluids

Front 327

cell-mediated response

Back 327

cytotoxic lymphocytes defend against infection in body cells

Front 328

lysozyme

Back 328

digest bacterial cell walls of microbes

Front 329

hemocytes

Back 329

__ in hemolymph: phagocytosis and various chemical protections.

Front 330

antimicrobial peptides

Back 330

disrupt pathogen plasma membranes of fungi and bacteria.

Front 331

toll-like receptor

Back 331

receptors that recognize pathogen bits in innate immunity. activation triggers innate immune response.

Front 332

neutrophils

Back 332

phagocytic cell. circulate the blood

Front 333

macrophages

Back 333

phagocytic cell. some migrate throughout the body, others reside permanently in organs and tissues

Front 334

dendritic cells

Back 334

found in tissues that contact the environment (skin). phagocytic cell.

Front 335

eosinophils

Back 335

phagocytic cells. located beneath mucosal surfaces.

Front 336

antimicrobial proteins

Back 336

include interferons and the complement system

Front 337

interferons

Back 337

antimicrobial protein. produced by cells infected by viruses; signal other cells to produce anit-viral compounds

Front 338

complement system

Back 338

antimicrobial protein. proteins in blood plasma, activated by microbial substances; leads to bursting of cells. also part of inflammatory response.

Front 339

inflammatory response

Back 339

release of signaling molecules following infection/injury. innate immunity

Front 340

mast cells

Back 340

__ __ release histamine, a signaling molecule. causes vessels to dilate, becoming more permeable.

Front 341

macrophages

Back 341

activated __ also release signaling molecules, cytokines, that promote blood flow

Front 342

systemic vs local inflammatory responses

Back 342

increase production of white blood cells (macrophages+lymphocytes)

fever: accelerate repair? kill invading cells?

Front 343

natural killer cells

Back 343

innate immunity response. inflammatory response. can recognize and chemically-destroyed destroy diseased cells. normal body cells produce class 1 MHC surface proteins.

infected or cancerous do not

NK cells look for such cells and kill them

Front 344

immunological memory

Back 344

vertebrates: acquired immunity involves ___ __.

Front 345

B cells

Back 345

mature in bone marrow. type of lymphocyte.

Front 346

T cells

Back 346

move from bone to the thymus. type of lymphocyte.

Front 347

antigen receptors

Back 347

lymphocytes activated by binding to specific antigens displayed on the cell surfaces, using __ __. Causes lymphocytes to divide: one daughter used now and one saved for later (memory cell)

Front 348

antigen receptors (antibodies)

Back 348

B cells secrete __ __ (__): bind to foreign molecule. some t cells detect and kill infected cells. other t cells "help" activate other lymphocytes

Front 349

antigens

Back 349

foreign molecules recognized by lymphocytes. typically proteins or polysaccharides. may be on surface of pathogens. T and B lymphocytes have them in plasma membrane

Front 350

plasma cells

Back 350

some b lymphocytes (__ __) produce antigen receptors= antibodies (immunoglobulin)

Front 351

epitope

Back 351

small part of antigen that is recognized by and bound to antigen receptor. one antigen can have many of these.

Front 352

Y-shaped

Back 352

B cell receptors are this shape. 4 polypeptides. 2 heavy, 2 light. linked by sulfide bonds. heavy chains "transmembrane"

c trans-membrane, with sulfide bonds

V at tips: forms 2 asymmetrical antigen binding sites.

Front 353

T cell receptor

Back 353

has a and B chains linked by sulfide bonds.

C and V regions, but with 1 antigen binding site.

Front 354

free antigens

Back 354

b cell receptors bind __ __.

Front 355

"presented" antigens

Back 355

T cells only bind __ __.

Front 356

effector cells

Back 356

activated B or T cells divide many times. A type of daughter cell. short-lived, attack antigen/pathogen. innate immunity.

Front 357

memory cells

Back 357

activated B or T cells divide many times. A type of daughter cell. long-lived, with same antigen receptor. innate immunity.

Front 358

adaptive immunity

Back 358

primary and secondary immunity responses.

Front 359

primary immune response

Back 359

adaptive immunity. production of effectors (plasma cells) peaks 10-17 days.

production of memory cells leads to immunological memory

Front 360

secondary immune response

Back 360

second exposure. peaks faster (2-7 days) and higher.

Front 361

helper t cells

Back 361

enhance humoral and cell-mediated responses. binds to antigen presenting macrophage, dendritic cell, or b cell: class II MHC, TCR (T cell receptor) and accessory protein (holds complex together).

cells exchange signaling molecules (cytokines): stimulates B cells (humoral response) and cytotoxic T cells (cell-mediated response)

Front 362

humoral immune response

Back 362

activation and clonal selection of effector B cells. "antibody mediated response"

secrete antibodies that circulate in blood and lymph.

defend against extracellular pathogens

Front 363

cell-mediated

Back 363

cytotoxic T cells= effector T cells

activated by binding class I MHC, TCR and accessory protein on infected cell and cytokines from helper T

secretes proteins that rupture cell membrane and initiate apoptosis.

Front 364

MHC proteins (major histocompatibility complex)

Back 364

___ ___ on the surface of cells presents antigens to T cells. This complex makes the proteins that present antigens on cell surface.

Front 365

Class I MHC

Back 365

In (almost) all cells

bind foreign peptides synthesized in cell

recognized by cytotoxic T cells

Front 366

Cass II MHC

Back 366

in macrophages, B cells, dendritic cells (antigen-presenting cells)

bind foreign fragments acquired through phagocytosis

recognized by helper T cells: influence activities of B and cytotoxic T cells

Front 367

B cell

Back 367

activated _ __ produces memory cells and plasma cells that release antibodies.

Front 368

neutralization

Back 368

antibodies interfere with pathogen function. binds to virus, bacterium or toxin.

Front 369

opsonization

Back 369

antibodies interfere with pathogen function. binding sites for macrophages.

Front 370

activation of complement system

Back 370

antibodies interfere with pathogen function. form "membrane attack complex" with __ __, cell lyses.

Front 371

osmoregulation

Back 371

concentration of body fluids similar to surrounding environment: no specializations for __.

Front 372

osmosis

Back 372

water moves from low solute to high solute concentration. sea water is hyperosmotic, blood hypoosmotic.

Front 373

osmoconformer

Back 373

body fluid isoosmotic with environment

Front 374

osmoregulator

Back 374

body fluid regulated

many marine invertebrates

most tolerate narrow range of temps (stenohaline)

a few can tolerate wide range (euryhaline)

Front 375

ammonia

Back 375

protein/nucleic acid metabolism results in __. highly toxic but highly soluble. aquatic organisms can let it diffuse from body surface.

Front 376

urea

Back 376

many vertebrates convert ammonia and CO2 to __. lower toxicity.

Front 377

uric acid

Back 377

reptiles + birds, terrestrial invertebrates convert ammonia to __ __: lower toxicity. nonsoluble (little water needed). most costly to produce.

Front 378

urine

Back 378

__ is produced in 4 steps in the excretory system. built on a tubular theme.

Front 379

transport epithelium

Back 379

some surface specialized to move solutes/water into/out of circulatory fluid.

Front 380

filtration

Back 380

first step of urine production. body fluid forced through semi-permeable membrane (water, ions pass: proteins, etc. do not).

Front 381

reabsorption

Back 381

2nd step of urine production. water and ions selectively taken back.

Front 382

secretion

Back 382

3rd step of urine production. wastes, etc, actively added to filtrate.

Front 383

excretion

Back 383

4th step of urine production. remaining filtrate (urine) leaves the body through urethra.

Front 384

protonephridia

Back 384

___ of flatworms: beating cilia inside flame bulb draw body fluid into tubules, filtrate excreted. function: osmoregulation rather than excretion

metabolic waste diffused across body surface or eliminated through the mouth. excretory system of flatworms

Front 385

metanephridia

Back 385

___ of annelids: beating cilia draw body fluid in the tubes. reabsorption in with capillaries. function: osmoregulation and excretion. excretory system or annelids.

Front 386

malpighian tubules

Back 386

__ __ of insects: immersed in hemoplymph. solutes secreted by transport epithelium from hemolymph. water reabsorbed, nitrogenous waste/uric acid excreted. excretory system of insects

Front 387

kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

Back 387

each __ served by renal artery and renal vein.

fluid leaves each kidney via __.

each ureter drains to common __ __.

drains to outside via __; controlled by sphincter muscles.

Front 388

renal cortex, renal medulla

Back 388

kidney is composed of out __ __ and inner __ __; lots of blood vessels and excretory tubules.

Front 389

nephron, bowman's capsule, glomerulus.

Back 389

in kidney. functional unit of kidney. one long tubule; begins with __ __ surrounding cluster of capillaries (__).

Front 390

proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule, collecting duct, renal pelvis

Back 390

path of filtrate within nephron

Bowman's capsule to __ __. then to __ of __; in mammals extends into renal medulla. then to __ __, then to common __ __. collecting ducts join to form __ __ which drains to ureter.

Front 391

afferent and efferent arterioles, peritubular capillaries, vasa recta.

Back 391

each nephron served by circulatory system.

__ and __ __ lead to and from glomerulus.

__ __ around tubules

__ __ associated with loop of Henle

Front 392

proximal tubule

Back 392

filtration step. first stage of concentration of wastes.

Front 393

descending loop of henle

Back 393

filtration process. reabsorption of water. permeable to water but not salts

Front 394

ascending loop of henle

Back 394

filtration process. reabsorption of NaCl. permeable to NaCl but not water. active and passive transport.

Front 395

distal tubule

Back 395

filtration process. regulates NaCl out K+ in.

Front 396

collecting duct

Back 396

filtration process. further concentrates filtrate. moves down gradient. loses water, actively reabsorbs NaCl. in inner medulla, permeable to urea: water diffuses out to contribute to high osmolarity.

Front 397

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Back 397

released in response to high blood osmolarity. made in hypothalamus, stored in pituitary. increases water permeability, concentrates urine.

Front 398

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)

Back 398

hormone that maintains blood pressure. when blood pressure is low (dehydration), initiates enzyme cascade resulting in arterial construction.

Front 399

endocrine signaling

Back 399

hormones circulate in blood/hemolymph and activate target cells

Front 400

paracrine and autocrine signaling

Back 400

__ and __ signaling: secrete molecules, "local regulators", that act over short distances, reach target cells by diffusion.

Front 401

synaptic and neuroendocrine signaling

Back 401

__ and __ signaling: network of neurons transmit chemical signals (neurotransmitters) to other cells across synapses.

specialized neurosecretory cells secrete molecules, NEUROHORMONES, that diffuse from nerve cell endings into the bloodstream.

Front 402

pheromones

Back 402

chemicals released outside the body to affect another organism. ex: warning, attracting mates.

Front 403

water-soluble hormones

Back 403

cell membrane receptors initiate signal transduction and response.

Front 404

lipid-soluble hormones

Back 404

move across cell membrane, receptors within cell/nucleus. receptor hormone complex interacts directly with DNA.

Front 405

insulin and glucagon

Back 405

ex of antagonistic pair: __ and __. both hormones produced in pancreas.

increased blood glucose leads to release of insulin.

decrease in blood glucose leads to release of glucagon (targets liver to convert glycogen to glucose)

Front 406

type I diabetes

Back 406

autoimmune disorder kills cells that make insulin. lots of glucose in blood, but cells not taking it up.

Front 407

type II diabetes

Back 407

mostly the result of life style (overweight, lack of exercise).

insulin produced but target cells don't take up glucose.

Front 408

hypothalamus

Back 408

vertebrate __: endocrine gland in brain; important for nervous/endocrine coordination.

Front 409

pituitary gland

Back 409

neurosecretory signals from hypothalamus travel to the __ __ (actually 2 fused together)

Front 410

posterior pituitary:

Back 410

stores two hormones from hypothalamus.

Antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin

Front 411

anterior pituitary

Back 411

makes several hormones that are released upon stimulation from hypothalamus. acts on a wide variety of targets.

tropic hormones: those that regulate other endocrine glands.

Front 412

adrenal glands

Back 412

involved in stress behavior. on kidneys (renal organs) with 2 parts, adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.

Front 413

epinephrine and norepinephrine

Back 413

stress leads to the release of these 2 amines from the adrenal medulla. prepares body for short-term excitement.

Front 414

ACTH

Back 414

stress leads hypothalamus to release tropic hormone (____) that stimulates adrenal cortex.

Front 415

mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids

Back 415

ACTH released from the hypothalamus in response to stress, releases two main types of steroids for long-term stress response: __ and __.

Front 416

sexual reproduction

Back 416

fusion of haploid (n) gametes to form dipoid (2n) zygote

Front 417

internal fertilization

Back 417

games mingle in female's reproductive tract

Front 418

fission

Back 418

one individual splits into two of similar size

Front 419

budding

Back 419

one individual grows from another. ex: hydra, colonial corals

Front 420

gragmentation

Back 420

breakage, followed by regeneration. ex: starfish

Front 421

parthenogenesis

Back 421

offspring develop from unfertilized eggs.

Front 422

gonads

Back 422

the sex of an individual is determined by its __. males have testes that produce sperm.

females have ovaries that produce ova (eggs)

Front 423

external fertilization

Back 423

can occur in aquatic environments.

spawning: both sperm and eggs released to water.

some species synchronize based upon environmental cues.

Front 424

gametogenesis (oogenesis)

Back 424

production of gametes. must be coordinated with systems to support fertilized embryo.

eggs relatively large: DNA+nutrients for embryo

sing meiotic egg produced.

much of process completed b4 birth. mature gametes produce until 50.

long pauses in meiotic divisions

Front 425

spermatogenesis

Back 425

males. production of sperm is simple. lots all the time. sperm is small: DNA+little else.

all four products become gametes

meiotic division timing occurs throughout adulthood

meiotic divisions: sperm produced in continuous sequence from precursors to mature gametes.

Front 426

key ways spermatogenesis differs from oogenesis.

Back 426

1) number of gametes formed by meiosis

2) timing of meiotic division

3) pace of meiotic divisions

Front 427

penis

Back 427

external sex organ. urethra and erectile tissue.

relies on hydrostatic pressure (blood) during copulation

other mammals have a bone (baculum) to maintain rigidity

Front 428

scrotum

Back 428

external sex organ. contains testes outside the body.

spermatogenesis happens at lower temp than body

testicles: testis within a scrotum.

Front 429

testes

Back 429

internal sex organ. composed of highly coiled SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES.

Front 430

seminiferous tubules

Back 430

inside testes. produces sperm.

leydig cells (endocrine): located btw tubules, make testosterone, etc.

Front 431

epididymis

Back 431

internal sex organ. highly coild, 6m tube. sperm take 3 WEEKS to mature.

Front 432

ejaculation

Back 432

the process of getting sperm form the inside to the outside.

from epididymis to muscular VAS DEFERENS, and around the bladder.

ejaculatory duct: opens to urethra.

Front 433

seminal vesicles

Back 433

most of the volume of semen; contains mucus, sugar, ascorbic acid, and prostaglandins.

Front 434

prostate gland

Back 434

adds more fluid to semen, including anticoagulant enzymes and nutrients.

Front 435

bulbourethral gland

Back 435

secretes mucus to neutralize any urine (acidic) in urethra. this gland releases this to add to semen.

Front 436

spermatogonium

Back 436

diploid stem cells within testes.

primary spermatocyte: 2n

secondary spermatocytes: nx2 products of meiosis 1

spermatids: nx4...products of meiosis II

sperm cells: nx4...mature in seminiferous tubules

Front 437

GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)

Back 437

hormone from hypothalamus, stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH (the gonadotropin molecules)

Front 438

FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone)

Back 438

hormones from pituitary. tropic hormones that target gonads and regulate sex hormone reproduction.

__: acts on sertoli cells in seminiferous tubules

__: acts on leydig cells btw seminif. tubules

Front 439

gonads

Back 439

produce sex hormones

males: androgens, like testosterone

females: estrogen, like estradiol and progesterone

Front 440

negative feedback

Back 440

hormonal control of spermatogenesis is based on __ __.

Front 441

sertoli cells

Back 441

what FSH acts on. nourish developing sperm.

promote spermatogenesis.

the cells produce INHIBIN, which regulates pituitary.

Front 442

leydig cells

Back 442

what LH acts on. secretes testosterone, which promotes spermatogenesis.

Front 443

testosterone

Back 443

inhibits both hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

Front 444

pvaries

Back 444

paired __ are the female gonads

Front 445

oocytes

Back 445

outer layer of follicles: __. partially developed eggs surrounded by support cells. 1-2mill follicles at birth. only 500 can mature btw puberty and menopause.

Front 446

ovulation

Back 446

after __ (release of ovum), follicle becomes CORPUS LUTEUM that makes estrogen

Front 447

corpus luteum

Back 447

what follicle becomes after ovulation. makes estrogens. degrades if not fertilized.

Front 448

oviducts

Back 448

fallopian tubes. leads to uterus (womb). connects to vagina via CERVIX. uterus lined by ENDOMETRIUM: many blood vessels to support developing fetus.

Front 449

oogonium

Back 449

___:diploid 2n stem cell withing follicle of ovary

primary oocyte: 2n. present at birth

secondary oocyte: n +polar body (one per month;stops mid meiosis II)

fertilized egg: 2n +polar body

ovulation + sperm initiates completion of meiosis II and develops into 2n zygote.

follicle becomes corpus luteum.

Front 450

ovarian cycle

Back 450

reproductive cycle. procudes ovum. lasts about 28 days. under control of same hormones as spermatogenesis.

GnRH--FSH and LH released--FSH stimulates follicle growth--follicle secretes setradiol--low estradiol inhibits anterior pituitary--leads to spike in FSH and LH then estradiol then gonadotropins--follicle ruptures, releasing 2 oocyte (ovulation)--luteal phase follows; LH stimulates development of corpus luteum, which secretes estradiol and progesterone.--decrease in gonadotropin causes corpus luteum to degrade.--in the absense of pregnancy, the whole cycle starts again.

Front 451

uterine/menstral cycle

Back 451

synchronized with the ovarian cycle hormonally

prepares the uterus to support a fetus.

estradiol from follicles causes endometrium to thicken;proliferative phase--after ovulation, estrogens stimulate development of uterine lining, including arteries and glands;secretory phase.--when corpus luteum degrades, hormone levels drop and endometrium degrades, releasing blood. menstrual flow phase.

coordination of ovarian and uterine cycles until menopause (46-54 years)

Front 452

menopause

Back 452

46-54 years of age. coordination of ovarian and uterine cycle stops. other mammals have seasonal or annual ESTROUS CYCLE ("in heat") when females are receptive.

Front 453

fertilization

Back 453

"conception". sperm fuses with mature oocyte in oviduct.

24 hours: first cleavage

2-3 days: zygote reaches uterus

1 week: blastocyst (hollow ball of cells), implants in endometrium

develops into fetus.

Front 454

hGC (human chorionic gonadotropin)

Back 454

embryo produces ___. works like LH to keep corpus luteum from degrading. keeps progesterone levels up. can be detected in uring;pregnancy test

Front 455

preganncy

Back 455

one or more embryos in the uterus

Front 456

gestational period

Back 456

first 2-3 weeks: embryo nutrients from endometrium

placenta: forms from embryonic and material tissue; blood vessels from both exchange nutrients, gases, wastes, etc.

after 8 weeks of ORGANOGENESIS, embryo termed a fetus

Front 457

estradiol and oxytocin

Back 457

after 38 weeks, interaction btw these hormones and local regulators leads to labor.

dilation of the cervix

contraction of uterus to push fetus out

more contraction to deliver placenta

Front 458

key stages to animal development

Back 458

fertilization

cleavage

gastulation

organogenesis

Front 459

vitelline layer

Back 459

extracellular matrix of egg

Front 460

jelly coat

Back 460

protects egg and attracts sperm.

Front 461

acrosomal reaction

Back 461

contact of sperm and egg cause this.

Front 462

acrosome

Back 462

vesicle at sperm tip with hydrolytic enzymes break down jelly

Front 463

acrosomal process

Back 463

structure with proteins that bind receptors on eggs.

Front 464

depolarization

Back 464

fusion of sperm and egg leads to change in membrane potential. fast block to polyspermy. not in mammals

Front 465

cortical reaction

Back 465

fusion also initiates __ __. vesicles in cortex (outer part) fuse with plasma membrane.

contents (enzymes) lead to fertilization envelope and SLOW block to polyspermy.

Front 466

cleavage

Back 466

earliest divisions of life, rapid. cells divide by mitosis, but don't grow in size.

blastomeres: individual (smaller) cells

Front 467

blastula

Back 467

hollow ball of cells with a BLASTOCOEL.

Front 468

cytoplasmic determinants

Back 468

proteins, mRNA, etc. in various places.

yolk: stored nutrients (vegetal axis) and non yolk side is animal pole

frogs

Front 469

yolk

Back 469

presence of __ influences shape of blastula

Front 470

gastrulation

Back 470

the process by which adult germ tissues are formed. the ball of cells turns into a structure with 2-3 tissue layers and a gut (gastrula)

Front 471

sea urchin gastrulation

Back 471

3 tissues (germ layers) are ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm

starts at vegetal pole. vegetal plate forms.

vegetal plate invaginates and becomes archenteron.

digestive tubes form, lined by endoderm

Front 472

archenteron in sea urchin

Back 472

vegetal plate invaginates and becomes ___. opening is the blastopore (future anus)

Front 473

gastulation in frog

Back 473

blastopores form on dorsal side at dorsal tip; extends around blastula.

future endoderm and mesoderm expand by INVOLUTION; shrinks blastocoel

end of gastrulation, blastopore surrounds YOLK PLUG.

Front 474

organogenesis

Back 474

once germ layers present, cells differentiate to form organs.

formation of notochord and so on

Front 475

notochord

Back 475

condensation of dorsal cells above archenteron

Front 476

neural plate

Back 476

cells curve inward to form a neural tube (becomes CNS)

Front 477

neural crest cells

Back 477

cells that migrate to form other nerves.

Front 478

cell differentiation and morphogenesis

Back 478

organogenesis continues into __ and __. (leads to adult organs).

Front 479

blastocyst

Back 479

mammalian blastula

trophoblast: outer epithelium (forms placenta)

inner mass cells: embryonic stem cells

Front 480

trophoblast

Back 480

initiates implantation. secretes enzymes to break down endometrium. thickens, send extensions to maternal blood vessels.

inner mass cells form epiblast and hypoblast

Front 481

morphogenesis

Back 481

when cells change shape and move relative to each other.

Front 482

cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)

Back 482

morphogenesis. cells form stable tissues using __ __ __. usually glycoproteins on cell surfaces. allow cells to recognize others and bind them with specific receptors.

Front 483

extracellular matrix

Back 483

migration of cells also mediated by __ __: mesh of macromolecules outside of cells.

Front 484

induction

Back 484

changes in gene expression based upon intercellular interactions

Front 485

developmental potential

Back 485

as cell lines develop, cells lose their __ __: they can become fewer different types of cells

Front 486

pattern formation

Back 486

__ __ is controlled by induction by induction providing positional info. (limb development in a chick).

Front 487

apical ectodermal ridge (AER)

Back 487

organizer region. at tip of bud. secretes growth factor that extends limb bud, proximal-distal.

Front 488

zone of polarizing activity (ZPA)

Back 488

organizer region. posterior, proximal location. organizes anterior-posterior of development: furthest become anterior.

Front 489

peripheral nervous system

Back 489

sensory input gets integrated into the central nervous system. response is transmitted by the __ __ __.

Front 490

structural neurons

Back 490

neurons that transmit info from eyes and other sensors that detects external stimuli or internal conditions

Front 491

interneurons

Back 491

neurons that form the local circuits connecting neurons in the brain

Front 492

motor neurons

Back 492

neurons that transmit signals to muscle cells, causing them to contract.

Front 493

glial cells

Back 493

nourish, insulate, and regulate neurons.

Front 494

cell body

Back 494

part of neuron that houses most of cytoplasm. nucleus.

Front 495

axon hillock

Back 495

where axon joins cell body, where signals are generated

Front 496

sodium potassium pump

Back 496

brings k in and send Na out.

Front 497

ion channels

Back 497

channels that let ions move down their gradient

Front 498

voltage potential

Back 498

net movement of charge is what creates __ __.

Front 499

hyperpolarization

Back 499

membrane potential more negative

Front 500

depolarization

Back 500

less negative of membrane potential activates voltage gated Na channels

Front 501

refractory period

Back 501

time btw action potentions, Na closed, AP not possible.

Front 502

glial cells

Back 502

speed of propagation increases with "insulation" by __ __.

Front 503

oligodendrocytes

Back 503

glial cell. in CNS.

Front 504

schwann cells

Back 504

glial cell. in PNS

Front 505

nodes of Ranvier

Back 505

voltage gated Na channels limited to gaps in myelin sheath: __ __ __. depolarization jumps from node to node.

Front 506

excitatory vs inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

Back 506

depolarize membrane a little vs hyperpolarize membrane a little

Front 507

temporal summation

Back 507

series of potentials from same synapse

Front 508

spatial summation

Back 508

potentials from diff. synapse on cell.

Front 509

inhibitory, excitatory

Back 509

__ potentials can cancel our __ potentials

Front 510

nerve net

Back 510

cnidarians have a diffuse __ __ instead of nerves. networks of neurons vary in complexity among the animals.

Front 511

Central Nervous System

peripheral nervous system

Back 511

brain+nerve cord running body length.

ganglia (cell bodies) and nerves outside CNS

Front 512

brain

Back 512

CNS. where all stimulus and voluntary (and involuntary) behavior is processed.

gray on outside

Front 513

spinal cord

Back 513

CNS. carries impulses to and form brain.

mediates reflexes

both brain and this are made of gray matter (non-myelin) and white matter (myelin)

white on outside.

Front 514

cerebrospinal fluid

Back 514

brain and spinal cord filled with this fluid. diffusion of resources and waste.

cushion

glial cells create tight blood-brain barrier

Front 515

radial glia

Back 515

embryonic glia that form tracks along which newly formed neurons migrate from the neural tube, the structure that gives rise to the CNS

Front 516

astrocytes

Back 516

glia that facilitate info transfer at synapses and sometimes release neurotransmitters; initiates formation of the blood-brain barrier during embryonic development.

Front 517

radial glia and astrocytes

Back 517

__ and __ can act as stem cells, generating new neurons in glia

Front 518

microglia

Back 518

immune cells that protect against pathogens in neurons

Front 519

ependymal cells

Back 519

line ventricles and promote circulation of cerebrospinal fluid

Front 520

cranial nerves

Back 520

connect brain with head

Front 521

spinal nerves

Back 521

connect spinal cord to rest of body

Front 522

afferent neurons

Back 522

bring information to the CNS (sensory)

Front 523

efferent neurons

Back 523

carry information away from CNS

motor system

autonomic nervous system

sympathetic division

parasympathetic division

enteric division

Front 524

motor system

Back 524

skeletal muscles; voluntary and reflexes. respond to external stimuli

Front 525

autonomic nervous system

Back 525

smooth and cardiac muscle, glands, etc.; involuntary. sympathetic, parasym, enteric.

Front 526

sympathetic division

Back 526

arousal, "fight or flight"

Front 527

parasympathetic division

Back 527

calming, "rest and digest"

Front 528

enteric division

Back 528

digestion.

Front 529

brainstem

cerebellum

Back 529

hindbrain and midbrain

__: midbrain+pons+medulla

homeostasis, coordination of movement, sharing info among other brain centers and PNS. attention, alertness, motivation.

__: coordinates movement, hand-eye coordination

Front 530

forebrain

Back 530

__:

diencephalon: thalamus+hypothalamus+epithalamus. functions in homeostasis, coordination sensory info. circadian rhythms.

cerebrum: center for learning, emotion, memory, perception. 80% of brain.outer cortex of gray matter. connected by corpus callosum.

Front 531

reticular formation

Back 531

sleep and arousal are controlled by __ __, diffuse network of neurons in the cor of the brain stem. filters info and determines what reaches cerebellum.

Front 532

pons and medulla

Back 532

__ and __ also regulate sleep. biological clock regulates sleep cycles.

Front 533

limbic system

Back 533

borders the brainstem, responsible for emotions, includes amygdala, hippocampus, and thalamus.

Front 534

cortex

Back 534

__ has 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

Front 535

broca's area

Back 535

controls muscles in the face, active during speech generation.

Front 536

wernicke's area

Back 536

active when speech is heard, facilitates comprehension of speech.

Front 537

lateralization

Back 537

two hemisphere's not identical in function.

left:math, logic language

right: spatial patters, non-verbal thinking

Front 538

3 processes that determine structure of the nervous system during embryonic development

Back 538

1) gene expression, signal transduction

2) huge neuron die-off

3) synapse reconfiguration

Front 539

long-term potentiation

Back 539

ex. of how synaptic connections changed. frequent excitation of a synapse can make the postsynaptic neuron more sensitive to the presynaptic neuron.

Front 540

different receptors

Back 540

chemoreceptors

mechanoreceptors

photoreceptors

Front 541

reception

Back 541

1st step of stimulus to brain. sensory cell detects stimulus. stretching of mechanoreceptor opens ion channels

Front 542

transduction

Back 542

2nd step of stimulus to brain. conversion of stimulus to receptor potential. change in magnitude of action potentials is graded: magnitude varies with intensity of stimulus.

Front 543

transmission

Back 543

3rd step of stimulus to brain. if receptor potential initiates action potential.

receptor cell: axon or neurotransmitter

Front 544

perception

Back 544

4th step of stimulus to brain. CNS processing of input from sensory neurons. all perceptions are coded by the paths their action potentials travel.

Front 545

amplification

Back 545

transduction modification. strengthening the stimulus; adding energy.

Front 546

adaptation

Back 546

not to be confused with other adaptation. transduction modification. become unresponsive to constant stimulation.

Front 547

chemoreceptors

Back 547

bind molecules, initieates change in membrane potential. taste, smell.

Front 548

mechanoreceptors

Back 548

deformed or moved to sense pressure, stretch, motion. touch, hearing, balance.

Front 549

electromagnetic receptors

Back 549

detect light, electricity, magnetism. eyes to detect light.

Front 550

thermoreceptors

Back 550

detect heat and cold. membrane proteins change shape under diff. temps.

Front 551

nociceptors

Back 551

detect "pain", like extreme pressure, chemicals. highest density in skin.

Front 552

gustation

Back 552

taste; detection of tastants in solution.

taste-buds on tongue.

Front 553

olfaction

Back 553

smell; detection of odorants in air.

Front 554

tympanic membrane

Back 554

outer ear "eardrum" vibrates

middle ear: 3 tiny bones transmit vibrations

Front 555

cochlea

Back 555

inner ear. receives vibrations.

Front 556

vestibular canal

Back 556

waves flow down __ __ in ear that cause vibrations that stimulate hair cells.

Front 557

lateral line system

Back 557

mechanoreceptors for detecting low-frequency vibrations perceive the direction and velocity of water, predators, and prey.

Front 558

statocysts

statoliths

Back 558

many animals have __ to sense gravity. chamber surrounded by ciliated cells.

__ move around as body moves

Front 559

utricle

saccule

otoliths

Back 559

balance associated with ears.

inner ear has __ (horizontal) and __(verticle)

chambers lined with hair cells and little stones (otoliths)

Front 560

rods and cones

Back 560

__ and __ change light energy into chemical energy, which is transmitted to the brain.

Front 561

rhodopsin

Back 561

visual pigment in rods. active __ leads to signal transduction

Front 562

ganglion cell

Back 562

axons receive info from rods and cones, and form the optic nerves that transmit impulses to the brain.

Front 563

sarcomere

Back 563

basic contractile unit of myofibril (made of actin and myosin filaments)

Front 564

z lines

Back 564

sarcomere. ends of actin fibers line up at ends called __ __.

Front 565

m line

Back 565

sarcomere. middle of myosin fibers lined up called __ __.

Front 566

tropomyosin

troponin complex

Back 566

two sets of regulatory proteins are bound to the thin (actin) filaments. Ca2 and regulatory proteins.

__: coils around actin

__: arranged along tropomyosin. Ca2 in cytoplasm binds this, results in exposure of myosin binding sites.

proteins block myosin binding sites.

Front 567

motor unit

Back 567

___: all fibers controlled by one neuron. all contract together.

one muscle may be controlled by hundreds of neurons

Front 568

fixed action patterns

Back 568

sequence of unlearned acts linked to a simple stimulus.

Front 569

communication

Back 569

the transmission and reception of signals btw animals

Front 570

innate behavior

Back 570

traits that are fixed by genotype. individuals with the same genotype can have diff behavioral phenotypes.

learning: modifying behavior based upon experience

Front 571

imprinting

Back 571

formation at a specific stage in life of a long-lasting behavioral response to an individual or object, includes a sensitive, critical, period.

necessary for bonding btw parents and offspring.

Front 572

how to determine magnitude of environmental effects.

Back 572

1) behavior the result of complex interactions of environment and genotype

2)raise the same/similar genotypes in diff environs.

Front 573

cross-fostering studies

Back 573

offspring of one species raised by another. same/similar genotypes in diff environs.

Front 574

twin studies

Back 574

look at identical twins placed with diff foster families. useful for demonstrating effects of environment on identical genotypes.

Front 575

associative learning

Back 575

associate one stimulus with another. ex: classical conditioning, operant conditioning.

Front 576

classical conditioning

Back 576

arbitrary stimulus leads to certain response. ex: Pavlov's dog and bell

Front 577

operant conditioning

Back 577

trial and error learning. ex: rat obtaining food

Front 578

spatial learning

Back 578

maintaining an internal "map"

ex: digger wasps use visible landmarks to find nest

Front 579

cognition

Back 579

reasoning, awareness. ex: honybees can be trained to recognize "same" and "diff" colors in maze experiments

Front 580

problem-solving

Back 580

devising solutions to proceed past obstacles. ex: the raven and the string. social learning: many animals can learn by observing conspecifics.

Front 581

3 ex. of expectations of natural selection to refine behaviors to maximize survival and reproduction.

Back 581

optimal foraging

mate choice and parental care

sexual selection

Front 582

optimal foraging

Back 582

maximize benefit, minimize cost. ex: fruit fly larval foraging: rovers and sitters have different foraging alleles.

Front 583

mating system

Back 583

__ __'s are related to the parental roles. length and # of relationships btw males and females. diff species, different ways.

Front 584

monogamous

Back 584

mating type. long-term pair bonding

Front 585

polygamous

Back 585

mating type. multiple mates.

polygyny: one male, multiple females

polyandry: one femal, multiple males (uncommon)

Front 586

promiscuous

Back 586

mating type. no pair-bonding.

Front 587

sexual selection

Back 587

__ __ has behavioral effects. a type of natural selection; result of differential mating success when there is competition for mates.

Males compete to attract females (sing, dance)

males physically compete. ex: sheep.

Front 588

sexual dimorphism

Back 588

sexual selection leads to __ __ in phenotypic traits: appearance and behavior

Front 589

altruism

Back 589

__ presents a problem for evolutionary theory. it means to do something that lowers your own fitness but increases fitness of other individuals. ex: squirrel gives alarm call when sees predator. group gets a warning, caller attracts the predator....nonreproductive mole rats take care of reproductive ones

Front 590

genes

Back 590

in parent-offspring relationship, parent is actually looking after their __. the fitness of the child, affects fitness of parent.

Front 591

inclusive fitness

Back 591

this idea solves the problem of altruism in evolutionary theory.

fitness (representation of your genes in the next generation) depends on your reproduction and that of your close relatives.

Front 592

Hamilton's Rule

Back 592

rB>C

weigh the cost/benefit of an "altruistic"act

C(cost) is the # of offspring that an action might cost the "altruist"

B(benefit) is the # of offspring that an action will gain the recipient

r (coeff. of relatedness): average # of genes shared by the 2.

as long as rB>C, then the benefit outweighs the cost.

Front 593

the ways organisms interact with other organisms and their environments on diff scales are

Back 593

individual, populations, communities, ecosystems, landscapes, global.

Front 594

populations

communities

ecosystems

landscapes

global

Back 594

__: groups of the individuals of the same species

__: groups of pops

__: groups of communities

__: groups of ecosystems

__: the Earth: biosphere

Front 595

evolutionary time

Back 595

populations change to adapt to their environments.

Front 596

ecological time

Back 596

response of organisms, populations, etc. to their environments.

Front 597

ecology vs environmentalism

Back 597

science vs advocacy.

Front 598

dispersal

Back 598

movement of individuals to new areas. barriers can explain species distributions. ex: no kangaroos in NA even though they could survive there.

Front 599

habitat selection

Back 599

when animals choose to avoid a livable habitat: psychological barrier. ex: antbirds won't fly across water ever.

Front 600

biotic factors

Back 600

species distributions are often limited by other species, which is termed __ __.

species absent because other species are absent/present

herbivore can limit distribution of food species: sea urchins and kelp

Front 601

physiological tolerance

Back 601

species distributions are also limited by their __ __. physical/chemical properties= ABIOTIC FACTORS.

Front 602

abiotic factors

Back 602

physical/chemical properties=__ __.

temp: too hot, too cold

water: too wet, too dry

sunlight: too much or little

geology: inorganic parts of habitat (minerals, rocks, physical structure of land, pH)

Front 603

abiotic factors

biotic factors.

Back 603

Earth is not homogeneous for __ __:

leads to variation in __ __, etc.

many abiotic factors can be summarized as CLIMATE.

Front 604

surface curved

Back 604

results in broad climates. areas away from equator get less intense sunlight.

Front 605

axis of rotation tilted 23.5

Back 605

results in broad climates. seasonal variation in sunlight.

Front 606

pattern of heating/evaporation

Back 606

results in broad climates. variation in precipitation

Front 607

rotation of the Earth

Back 607

results in broad climates. circulation of air/water currents.

Front 608

local variations

Back 608

proximity to water: moderates temps and humitiy

mountains (shadow to sunlight, altitude, temp, rain shadow)

tilt of earth results in predictable seasonality: leads to variation in day length, sunlight, temp.

Front 609

long-term global variation in climate

Back 609

some periods are warmer/cooler/wetter/drier than others.

until 15-20000ya: northern latitudes coverd by glaciers.

species continue to move north (away from equator) as global climate continues to warm.

Front 610

characteristic biomes

Back 610

biotic and abiotic factors combine to create __ __.

Front 611

biomes

Back 611

major habitat types, determined by both biotic and abiotic factors.

Front 612

ecotones

Back 612

areas of transition btw biomes

Front 613

disturbance

Back 613

__ leads to community variation, patchiness. ex: fire, hurricanes.

Front 614

salinity and depth

Back 614

Aquatic biomes are characterized by __ and __. there are several aquatic biomes since 75% earth surface is aquatic.

freshwater vs marine

pelagic(open water) vs benthic(bottom)

Front 615

photic vs aphotic

Back 615

most photosynthesis occurs near the surface. light filtered out quickly: __ vs __.

Front 616

population

Back 616

chance over time. conspecific individuals occurring in a particular area. live in same environ. use same resources

interact/breed with each other.

Front 617

populations

Back 617

__ are dynamic: changing

gain individs from births

gain individs from immigration

lose individs from deaths

lose individs from emigration

Front 618

3 characteristics to describe populations

Back 618

density: # of invids per unit area (or volume)

mark recapture method.

dispersion

clumped

uniform

random

demographics: age and sex structure of the pop.

Front 619

life table

Back 619

age specific summaries of survival in population. usually divided by sex. useful way to summarize population demography.

constructed by following a single COHORT from birth to death.

Front 620

surivorship curves

Back 620

__ __ are a graphical way to summarize population demography. number alive plotted vs each age.

Front 621

life history

Back 621

species have characteristic survivorship curves, depending on the __ __: pattern of reproduction and survival.

Type 1: put energy into caring for a few offspring (humans)

Type 3: high death rates early on, low for survivors (oysters)

Type 2: beldings gournd squirrel. many relatively small offspring.

Front 622

reproductive tabel=fertility schedule

Back 622

rates of birth are just as imp as rates of death.

generally pay attention only to females in pop.

follow reproductive output of cohort

Front 623

cost of reproduction

Back 623

energy spent on offspring not spent on parent.

Front 624

iteroparity

Back 624

repeated reproduction. multiple reproductive periods. ex: belding's ground squirrel. variation in life history

Front 625

semelparity

Back 625

big-bang reproduction: all reproduction concentrated in a single effort.

favored in unpredictable environs: low probability of adult survival. variation in life histories.

Front 626

trade offs

Back 626

cant maximize all reproductive patterns at same time. more offspring means smaller offspring with less care. variation in life histories.

Front 627

change in pop

Back 627

__ __ __= births during time interval+deaths during time interval. (ignore migration).

Front 628

exponential pop growth

Back 628

this model is unrealistic in most circumstances.

Front 629

feeback

Back 629

population growth is often regulated with __.

Front 630

carrying capacity

Back 630

# of individs that a habitat can sustain.

limiting factors such as energy, shelter, nutrients, territories, water.

can vary over time

limiting resources can lower b, raise d.

Front 631

logistic pop growth

Back 631

this model incorporates carrying capacity.

characteristic S shaped curve.

Front 632

K-selection

Back 632

way to talk about life history trade-offs. for traits that are helpful at high densities.

few relatively large offspring. (type 1 survivorship curve).

Front 633

r-selection

Back 633

way to talk about life history trade-offs. for traits that are helpful at low densities.

many relatively small offspring; (type 2 survivorship curve).

Front 634

density dependent

Back 634

__ __ is ecological feedback. when birth or death rates change with pop size, they are this.

too small, grows. too large, shrinks

Front 635

causes of density-dependent regulation

Back 635

competition

disease

predation

accumulation of wastes

intrinsic factors (physiological responses to crowding)(stress hormones that lower reproductive rate).

Front 636

density-independent

Back 636

change in population size from factors independent of density is __ __ regulation.

ex: weather events (drought, tornado, etc.)

Front 637

dynamic

Back 637

population size is __.

pops fluctuate over time.

predation: increase in hares leads to increase in lynx; overexploitation by predators leads to low prey densities.

Front 638

space

Back 638

pops vary in __ as well as time. we have been focusing on r, not migration.

Front 639

metapopulation

Back 639

populations connected by dispersal in a __.

sources: positive pop growth, lots of emigration to sinks.

sinks: negative pop growth, lots of immigration from sources required to maintain pop.

pops blink in and out over space and time in a mosaic.

Front 640

metapopulation

Back 640

habitat fragmentation can yield a __ from what originally was a large continuous pop.

some species occur naturally in this structure : butterflies.

Front 641

the ways in which species interact within communities

Back 641

1)competition: -/-

2)predation: +/- one animal eats another

cryptic coloration=camouflage

aposematic coloration=brightly colored, warning

batesian mimicry: harmless resembling venomous animal

mullerian mimicry: 2 venomous resembling each other.

3)herbivory: special case of predation; animal east a plant/alga.

Front 642

niche

Back 642

competition results from species having overlapping __. sum of the biotic and abiotic needs of a species; its place/role in a habitat.

Front 643

outcomes of overlapping niches causing comp.

Back 643

competitive exclusion: weaker competitor eliminated from local area.

resource partitioning: species "realized niche" smaller than "fundamental niche" (2 barnacles competing for space).

character displacement:resource partitioning leads to morphological differences

Front 644

symbiosis

Back 644

relationship where close association btw species pairs, where at least one species always benefits.

mutualism

commensalism

parasitism

Front 645

richness and abundance

Back 645

__ and __ are both aspects of community diversity.

Front 646

species richness

Back 646

number of different species

Front 647

relative abundance

Back 647

proportion of individuals that belongs to each species

Front 648

shannon diversity index

Back 648

two communities can have same richness but different structures. ex: __ __ __.

Front 649

trophic structure

Back 649

feeding relationships among species. energy moves up from lower levels.

food chain: producers (plants)

consumers(herbivores)

consumers(carnivores)

Front 650

food web

Back 650

best way to show a trophic structure. multiple connections among levels. species occur at multiple levels. most have 6 or less levels.

Front 651

energetic hypothesis

Back 651

inefficiency of energy transfer btw levels in food web.

Front 652

dominant species

Back 652

most abundant or greates biomass(total mass of entire pop). determine existence of other species.

Front 653

keystone species

Back 653

key niches maintaining community structure; not necessarily dominant. ex: w/out starfish, mussels would take over.

Front 654

facilitators

Back 654

"ecosystem engineers". ex: beavers create habitat.

Front 655

communities

Back 655

__ have both top-down and bottom-up regulation.

p-->h

p<--h

p<-->h

Front 656

bottom-up model

Back 656

p-->h-->c

increasing p, increases h, which increases c

Front 657

top-down model

Back 657

p<--h<--c

trophic cascade.

Front 658

disturbance

Back 658

species richness is maintained by __.

Front 659

stable equilibrium

Back 659

most communities are not in a __ __, that is they are not static entities.

Front 660

nonequilibrium model

Back 660

better characterizes most communities, they are dynamic with shifts in the incidence and relative abundance of species over time.

Front 661

intermediate disturbance hypothesis

Back 661

some disturbance increases species diversity.

low disturbance= dominant species exclude others

high disturbance=high stress; slow-growing

intermediate disturbance=allows for a mix; creates patches of diff habitats

Front 662

succession

Back 662

within communities, there is a characteristic pattern of species replacement over time: __.

Front 663

primary succession

Back 663

beginning without soil. ex: after a volcanic eruption, glacier recession.

Front 664

secondary succession

Back 664

with soil; ex: fire burns forest. takes less time.

Front 665

species-area curve

Back 665

larger areas have more species:seen in __ __ __. larger area, more habitats, support more diff species.

Front 666

latitudinal gradient

Back 666

more species closer to the equator; higher tropical diversity.

historical: poles recently glaciated

climate: warmer, wetter, so higher productivity (evaptranspiration=evaporation+transpiration)

Front 667

ecosystem

Back 667

sum of biotic and abiotic interactions in an area. ranges from microhabitat to whole earth.

2 abiotic processes central to ecology:

flow of energy and cycling of nutrients

Front 668

flow of energy

Back 668

energy (usually sunlight) transformed to chemical energy by autotrophs, all eventually lost as heat

Front 669

cycling of nutrients

Back 669

elements continually recycles; move btw ecosystems.

inputs: minerals from dust and rainwater

outputs: gases lost to atmosphere water

generally in/outputs small relative to amount recycled

Front 670

trophic levels in ecosystem

Back 670

primary producers=autotrophs. plants

primary consumers=herbivores that eat producers

secondary consumers=carnivores that eat herbivores

tertiary consumers=carnivores that eat carnivores

detritivores/decomposers=get energy from detritus(nonliving animal)

Front 671

primary production

Back 671

production is ultimately limited by the amount of energy that enters the system.

__ __: amount of light energy converted to chemical energy in a given span of time.

Front 672

gross primary production (GPP)

Back 672

total 1degree production for an ecosystem

Front 673

net primary production (NPP)

Back 673

part stored as organic matter.

this is the energy available to higher trophic leves

Front 674

secondary production

Back 674

new biomass added to consumers; amount of 1degree production converted to consumer.

Front 675

% production efficiency

Back 675

=portion of assimilated 1degree production that is used for growth.

endotherms have low efficiency

ectotherms have high

Front 676

trophic efficiency

Back 676

percent production transferred up to the next level. can express pyramid of net production.

Front 677

biomass pyramid

standing crop

Back 677

can also think of __ of __ (not production)

Front 678

limiting nutrients

Back 678

if adding a nutrient increases productivity, then it is limiting.

Front 679

eutrophication

Back 679

increased algal production due to pollution (sewage, fertilizer)

Front 680

biogeochemical cycles

Back 680

both abiotic and biotic. inputs/outputs. nutrients sometimes present but unavailable.

nutrients cycle through ecosystems.

most imp:

H2O, C, N, P

Front 681

temperature

Back 681

___ affects leaf litter decomposition rates. ex: case study from Canadian ecosystems

Front 682

hubbard Brook study

Back 682

cut down all the trees in the valley, noticed massive loss of nutrients by the ecosystem.

lesson: standing plants control outputs. these long term studies are needed to understand the natural functioning of ecosystems.

humans have conducted accidental experiments: changed the biotic and abiotic interactions in ecosystems, resulting in altered function.

Front 683

nitrogen cycle

Back 683

humans enrich the __ __ in agriculture.

farming removes N from soil.

temperate grass land: lots of soil/N that lasts decades

tropical forest: little soil/N lasts few years.

crops grown: N removed. ends up in sewer.

Front 684

critical load

Back 684

excess (amount that exceeds __ __, no longer limiting) runs off into rivers.

extra N leads to algae blooms in gulf of mexico, which leads to O2 depletion: "dead zone"

can be mitigated by using less fertilizer.

Front 685

global human population size

Back 685

the human population growth is still a positive growth but is no long exponential

Front 686

annual percent increase

Back 686

this percentage has decreased throughout the years.

Front 687

human population growth in diff countries

Back 687

human pop growth and age structure varies by country depending on whether they are industrialized or developing.

graph shows that the less developed countries have a higher birth rate, but higher death rate as well. developed countries, have a lower birth rate and maintain that rate throughout different ages.

Front 688

demographic transition

Back 688

switch from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates in a given country, tends to accompany industrialization and improved living conditions. undeveloped countries (aphighanistan) has rapid growth, US has slow growth, and italy has no growth. the chart for italy shows that the there are the most people in the middle age age range.

Front 689

ecological footprint

Back 689

this measures human impact. calculates how much land and water resources we consume to grow food, support lifestyles, and assimilate waste; can also be measured as energy consumption. measured per capita.

Front 690

conservation of biology

Back 690

the goal of this is to conserve biodiversity, and mitigate negative effects of humans on ecosystems.

Front 691

anthropogenic

Back 691

human caused. ecosystem modification is causing increased extinction rates. always extinction but more species going recently.

Front 692

why worry about biodiversity

Back 692

innate tie to nature: biophilia

obligation to future generations

provide us with useful services: ecosystem services (clean, detoxify waste, pollinate crops)

Front 693

conservation biologists

Back 693

they are concerned with loss of biodiversity at multiple levels.

Endangered Species Act.

12% birds endangered worldwide

21% mammals

730 plant species

extinction of freshwater animals. 5x worse than terrestrial.

preservation of species genetic diversity

community and ecosystem diversity

Front 694

community and ecosystem diversity

Back 694

fates of species interconnected. flying foxes hunted, but important pollinators and seed dispersers. protect habitats

Front 695

threats to biodiversity

Back 695

1) Habitat loss and destruction

biggest threat.

2) Introduced/Exotic Species

increase in global travel led to this.

3) overexploitation

fisheries and large mammals. harvested ^ than can reproduce. hunting of elephants, rhinos, whales.

4) global change

acid rain, climate change, atmospheric chemistry.

Front 696

human activities that cause habitat degradation and loss

Back 696

agriculture= primary cause of ecosystem change

natural resource extraction= mining, logging, fishing

urbanization and infrastructure development

war and violent conflict

pollution

Front 697

consequences of pollution besides degradation

Back 697

toxins accumulate in top predators.

humans add synthetic chemicals to ecosystem like pesticides (DDT), industrial chemicals (PCBs), which are not broken down by detritivores.

mercury from plastic manufacture, coal burning. accumulates in predators, especially fishes.

Front 698

biological magnification

Back 698

becomes more concentrated in higher trophic levels.

Front 699

consequences of pollution

Back 699

DDT (insecticide), now banned. accumulated in birds of prey, like bald eagles. led to weak egg shells.

still use DDT in Africa for malaria.

Front 700

invasive species

Back 700

an introduced species that establishes, expands its range, and has a substantial impact on native organisms and ecosystems. ex: fire ants.

Front 701

invasive species can interact with natives in many ways

Back 701

as competitors, predators, and parasites.

predators: ex., brown tree snake on Guams 9 of the island's 11 native forest dwelling bird species are now extirpated (extinct on Guam). these snakes have even caused electrical outages in Guam bc they coil around the power lines and break them.

Front 702

overexploitation

Back 702

hunting

fishing

collecting for trade.

leads to decrease in species abundance and ultimately extinction of the species.

Front 703

fossil fuels

Back 703

burning __ __ creates acid rain. burning them release S and N. combines with water to make sulfuric and nitric acid.lowers pH of water bodies in areas with weakly buffered water (less bicarbonate to neutralize it)

Front 704

chemicals

Back 704

__ we release can also alter abiotic factors.

CFCs used in refrigeration, air conditioners. the layer of ozone in the atmosphere absorbs UV radiation bc CL released reacts with ozone.

"hole" in ozone.

mitigated by banning the production of CFCs in 1987. has helped a lot.

Front 705

excess CO2

Back 705

this excess in the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels results in increasing global temps.

greenhouse effect.

the global warming trend on Earth has had greatest effect at high latitudes.

Front 706

extinction vortex

Back 706

small populations lead to smaller populations which leads to extinction.

Front 707

minimum viable population (MVP) size

Back 707

number of individuals at which a species is able to sustain its numbers and not enter the extinction vortex. depends on the species.

Front 708

effective population size

Back 708

# in pop. that breed. demographic modeling to predict how long population can last.

Front 709

landscapes and habitats

Back 709

often more efficient to focus of __ and __ than on species. this way we can protect areas instead of multiple species.

set aside large tracts of land to protect from fragmentation. (edges, edge effects, corridors)

Front 710

edges

Back 710

boundaries btw communities are ecosystems

Front 711

edge effects

Back 711

increase due to habitat fragmentation

Front 712

corridors

Back 712

strips of habitat that connect otherwise isolated habitat fragments, facilitates movement and dispersal.

Front 713

biodiversity hot spots

Back 713

smaller areas with lots of diversity

Front 714

restoration ecology

Back 714

we need to restore when ecosystems are too far degraded= __ __. ex: turning open-pit mine into salt marsh.

Front 715

bioremediation

Back 715

using plants, fungi, prokaryotes, etc. to detoxify an area.

plant plants that can take up contaminants in contaminated areas.

also use bacteria

Front 716

biological augmentation

Back 716

use organisms to add compounds to ecosystem. ex: plant legumes to increase N in soils until native plants get established.

Front 717

zoned reserves

Back 717

have surround by "buffers" that separate. protected areas with areas set aside for regulated human pop, limited logging. (in Costa Rica).