Biology - Exam 3 - Study Notes (2/4)

Front 1

Most of the time the diapgragm is under ______ control by the brain, to keep us all breathing at all times.

Back 1

subconscious

Front 2

We can, however, exert ______ control over breathing to some extent.

Back 2

conscious

Front 3

We cannot hold our breath long enough to kill ourselves. Upon passing out, ______ functions return to normal

Back 3

automatic

Front 4

98.5% of oxygen is bound to ______ , the molecule that transports oxygen in red blood cells.

Back 4

hemoglobin

Front 5

Oxygen is bound to hemoglobin since oxygen doesn't dissolve well in ______ (blood is mostly water)

Back 5

water

Front 6

Each hemoglobin contains four atoms of ______ , each of which can bind one oxygen.

Back 6

iron

Front 7

The reason carbon monoxide is so deadly is that it binds much more ______ to hemoglobin than does oxygen.

Back 7

aggressively

Front 8

7% of carbon dioxide is dissolved in blood ______ and is exhaled in the lungs.

Back 8

plasma

Front 9

23% is bound to ______ and is exhaled in the lungs.

Back 9

hemoglobin

Front 10

Most carbon dioxide (70%) reacts with water to form ______ ions, travel through the blood, reform to carbon dioxide in the lungs and are exhaled.

Back 10

bicarbonate

Front 11

Clusters of nerve cells in the ______ of the brain stem control respiration, both breathing in and breathing out.

Back 11

medulla oblongata

Front 12

When medulla oblongata inspiratory nerve cells fire, impulse travel to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, expands the thorax and causing air to ______ in.

Back 12

rush

Front 13

When the expiratory nerve cells fire, the diaphragm relaxes, and air rushes ______ of the lungs.

Back 13

out

Front 14

______ in the medulla, aorta and carotid arteries, monitor oxygen and carbon dioxide levels as well as the pH (hydrogen ion levels) of the blood.

Back 14

Chemoreceptors

Front 15

______ concentrations of carbon dioxide and/or ______ levels of oxygen cause increased rate and/or depth of breathing.

Back 15

Increased, decreased

Front 16

If the blood pH declines due to increased levels of hydrogen ions, this also stimulates the respiratory system to breathe faster and deeper, which will eliminate carbon dioxide faster which will return the ______ of the blood to normal.

Back 16

pH

Front 17

(The abrupt increase in ventilation as exercise begins reflects the interaction of three neural factors:) The ______ stimulus from our conscious anticipation of exercise

Back 17

psychological

Front 18

(The abrupt increase in ventilation as exercise begins reflects the interaction of three neural factors:) The simultaneous activation of skeletal ______ and respiratory centers in the brain stem.

Back 18

muscles

Front 19

(The abrupt increase in ventilation as exercise begins reflects the interaction of three neural factors:) There are excitatory impulses that travel to ______ (motion sensors) in moving muscles, tendons and joints.

Back 19

proprioceptors

Front 20

Nutrients are substances obtained from the ______ that organisms need for growth and survival.

Back 20

environment

Front 21

There are 6 categories of nutrients:

Back 21

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water.

Front 22

A calorie is the amount of energy required to raise one gram of water one degree ______ .

Back 22

Centigrade

Front 23

Foods are measures in Calories (______ calories)

Back 23

1000

Front 24

______ (sugars and starches) are used by the body for quick sources of energy.

Back 24

Carbohydrates

Front 25

______ (fats) are the most calorie-dense foods. The body stores excess calories as fat.

Back 25

Lipids

Front 26

______ are used to build muscle.

Back 26

Proteins

Front 27

______ are elements that the body cannot make, and therefore must be obtained from the diet.

Back 27

Minerals

Front 28

The ______ in hemoglobin and the ______ in thyroid hormones are two examples of essential nutrients

Back 28

iron, iodine

Front 29

______ are also essential nutrients that the body cannot make, or cannot make in high enough quantities, and must be obtained from the diet.

Back 29

Vitamins

Front 30

Vitamins are required for the proper functioning of ______ , which control many body functions.

Back 30

enzymes

Front 31

Humans are about ______ water, and cannot survive for very long without it.

Back 31

60%

Front 32

______ is the basic component of our body liquids, and all metabolic reactions occur in water solutions.

Back 32

Water

Front 33

______ is the taking in of food and liquid.

Back 33

Ingestion

Front 34

Digestion of carbohydrates starts in the mouth through the action of the enzyme ______ .

Back 34

amylase

Front 35

Each day, cells of thhe digestion system secrete about ______ liters of water, acid, buffers and ezymes into the digestive tract.

Back 35

7

Front 36

Water, acid, buffers and ezymes are responsible for the ______ of our food.

Back 36

digestion

Front 37

Alternating contraction and relaxation of the smooth muscle of the ______ tract mixes food and chemicals and propels them through the system.

Back 37

digestive

Front 38

______ digestion begins in the mouth, where the teeth cut and grind food.

Back 38

Mechanical

Front 39

The stomach churns the food, mixing it with digestive ______ .

Back 39

chemicals

Front 40

Large molecules of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins are broken down into smaller molecules that can be ______ .

Back 40

absorbed

Front 41

The products of digestion are absorbed into the ______ that line the small intestine.

Back 41

cells

Front 42

These molecules then pass into the blood and ______ to circulate to all body cells.

Back 42

lymph

Front 43

The mouth is also called the oral or ______ cavity

Back 43

buccal

Front 44

The ______ prevents food and liquid from entering the nose during swallowing.

Back 44

uvula

Front 45

The ______ glands produce saliva that moistens the mouth and begins carbohydrate digestion.

Back 45

salivary

Front 46

The ______ is an accessory digestive organ that contains the taste buds and aids in swallowing.

Back 46

tongue

Front 47

The ______ are accessory digestive organs located in the sockets in the jaws.

Back 47

teeth

Front 48

Humans have ______ sets of teeth

Back 48

two

Front 49

There are ______ primary (baby) teeth and up to ______ secondary teeth- 28 regular teeth and 4 wisdom teeth.

Back 49

20, 32

Front 50

The ______ is a funnel-shaped structure that extends from the back of the nose to the esophagus.

Back 50

pharynx

Front 51

Muscular contractions of the pharynx help to move food into the ______

Back 51

esophagus

Front 52

The ______ is a muscular tube that extends from the back of the pharynx to the top of the stomach.

Back 52

esophagus

Front 53

Each end of the esophagus has a circular ______ muscle that opens and closes.

Back 53

sphincter

Front 54

If the lower ______ that leads to the stomach does not close properly, the stomach acid can back up into the esophagus.

Back 54

sphincter

Front 55

Stomach acid backup is called ______ (heartburn).

Back 55

acid reflux

Front 56

Acid reflux can damage the esophagus or cause ______ .

Back 56

cancer

Front 57

The stomach is a ______ structure located between the end of the esophagus and the beginning of the small intestine.

Back 57

J-shaped

Front 58

The stomach serves as a storage ______ and mixing reservoir.

Back 58

chamber

Front 59

Food is stored at the top of the stomach and released in ______ quantities at a time into the acid at the bottom of the stomach to begin digestion.

Back 59

small

Front 60

After mixing with the acid for awhile, the stomach release ______ quantities at a time of this mixture into the small intestine.

Back 60

small

Front 61

There are stomach cells that produce ______ , ______ and ______ .

Back 61

acid, ezymes, mucus

Front 62

______ forms a thick lining that protects the stomach itself from the acid, so that it doesn't digest itself.

Back 62

Mucus

Front 63

Very ______ absorption actually occurs in the stomach.

Back 63

little

Front 64

Stomach absorbtion include waters, some drugs and ______ .

Back 64

alcohol

Front 65

Alcohol, drunk on an empty tsomach, is absorbed very ______

Back 65

rapidly

Front 66

Small meals of easily digested foods, like sugars and carbohydrates, move through ______ .

Back 66

quickly

Front 67

Large meals of proteins or fatty foods may take several hours longer to digest, leaving one feeling ______ much longer.

Back 67

full

Front 68

The pancreas produces about ______ ml/day of pancreatic juice.

Back 68

1,200

Front 69

Pancreatic juice is released into the beginning of the ______ intestine, just downstream from the stomach.

Back 69

small

Front 70

Pancreatic juice is ______ in pH, to neutralize acid from the stomach (otherwise the small intestine would be digested)

Back 70

basic (high)

Front 71

Pancreatic juice contains a number of ______ that digest carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.

Back 71

enzymes

Front 72

The ______ and ______ are located in the upper part of the abdominal cavity, near the pancreas.

Back 72

liver, gallbladder

Front 73

Liver secrets a chemical called ______ , which is released into the small intestine and helps to digest fats.

Back 73

bile

Front 74

Bile I stored in the ______ until needed.

Back 74

gall bladder

Front 75

The liver also produces numerous ______ that aid in the digestion of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.

Back 75

enzymes

Front 76

The liver processes drugs and ______ substances such as alcohol.

Back 76

detoxifies

Front 77

The liver stores ______ vitamins like A, B12, D, E & K.

Back 77

fat-soluble

Front 78

The small intestine is the site where ______ digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs.

Back 78

most

Front 79

Small intestine has millions of tiny folds called ______ and ______ that greatly increase the surface area for absorption to occur.

Back 79

villi, microvilli

Front 80

______ Defenses are defenses are present at birth and offer immediate protection against a wide variety of pathogens

Back 80

Innate

Front 81

The skin and mucus membranes provide both physical and chemical barriers to prevent invasion of the body by ______ .

Back 81

pathogens

Front 82

Bacteria can rarely penetrate healthy, intact ______ .

Back 82

skin

Front 83

Mucus ______ , which line the body cavities, secret mucus, a viscous liquid that can trap pathogens and other foreign substances.

Back 83

membranes

Front 84

The ______ respiratory tract contains cilia, which are microscopic hair-like structures.

Back 84

upper

Front 85

The waving action of the ______ propels inhaled dust and microbes towards the throat.

Back 85

cilia

Front 86

Coughing and ______ enhance cilia in this process.

Back 86

sneezing

Front 87

Swallowing mucus sends pathogens to the stomach to be destroyed by ______ .

Back 87

acid

Front 88

The tear ducts produce an enzyme called ______ that helps to clean the surface of the eye and kill bacteria.

Back 88

lysozyme

Front 89

______ helps to wash microbes from the teeth.

Back 89

Saliva

Front 90

______ helps to keep the urinary system clean.

Back 90

Urination

Front 91

Defecation and vomiting help to expel ______ .

Back 91

microbes

Front 92

Oily ______ on the surface of the skin helps to inhibit growth of bacteria and fungi.

Back 92

sebum

Front 93

Antimicrobial proteins called ______ are produced by virus-infected cells.

Back 93

interferons

Front 94

Interferons ______ to neighboring cells and help prevent further viral infection.

Back 94

diffuse

Front 95

______ target infected cells and kill them, either by puncturing their cell membrane or by dissolving them with enzymes.

Back 95

Natural killer cells (NKCs)

Front 96

______ ingest pathogens or cellular debris.

Back 96

Phagocytes

Front 97

______ is a nonspecific reaction to tissue damage caused by chemicals, burns, extreme temperatures or pathogens.

Back 97

Inflammation

Front 98

The signs of ______ are redness, pain, heat and swelling.

Back 98

inflammation

Front 99

______ is the ability of the body to defend itself against specific invading agent such as bacteria, toxins, viruses and foreign tissue.

Back 99

Immunity

Front 100

______ are substances that the body recognizes as foreign that provoke an immune response

Back 100

Antigens