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187 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How many muscles in human body?
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600
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Two kinds of muscle filaments:
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Actin (thin filaments) a protein
Myotin (thick filaments) a motor protein |
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Describe a muscle contraction:
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Release of calcium ions, myosin grabs actin, ATP bends myosin inward, pulls actin closer together and shortens muscle, ATP separates actin and myotin and allows action to repeat
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Actin and myosin remain stuck together and muscles become stiff:
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Rigor Mortis
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Muscle cramps:
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Inbalance of blood ions, dehydration can cause involuntary release of calcium ions
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Muscle burn:
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Lactic acid accumulates after anaerobic respiration
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What causes muscle fatigue?
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Calcium channels become leaky, muscle can't fully relax/contract
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What do muscle fiber types differ in?
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concentration of myosin
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Fast-twitch:
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white fibers, explosive speed, few mitochondria, rely on anaerobic respiration so lactic acid builds up
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Slow-twitch:
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red fibers, good endurance, slow speed, many mitochondria, rely on aerobic respiration so lasts a long time
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What are the three systems for generating ATP energy in muscles?
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Phosphagen system, glycolytic system, aerobic respiration
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Phosphagen system:
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Lasts for about 10 seconds, anaerobic
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Glycolytic system:
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Lasts for 1-2 minutes, anaerobic
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Aerobic respiration:
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Lasts up to several hours
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Muscles burn fuel in this order:
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sugars, fats, proteins
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Genetic control of musculature:
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Myostatin gene inhibits muscular development, mutations cause excessive muscle development.
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Exercise physiology:
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exercise does not make more muscle, fibers get bigger and more resistant to fatigue
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Endurance training:
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light weights, increases number of mitochondria and capillaries serving the muscle
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Strength training:
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heavy weights, makes muscle fibers thicker and promotes enzymes used in glycolysis
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Skeleton:
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Rigid body support with muscles attached
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Hydrostatic skeleton:
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Fluid/air held under pressure in a closed body part
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Exoskeleton:
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hard skeleton on outside of body, made from protein chitin
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Endoskeleton:
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hard skeleton on inside of body
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What is cartilage made from?
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collagen (protein) fibers
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What are bones made from?
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collagen strengthened by calcium phosphate
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How many bones in an infant?
Adult? What happens to other bones? |
300
200-210 Other bones fuse together as we grow |
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Do men and women have diff. numbers of rib bones?
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no, most adults have 12 pairs
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Four functions of bones:
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1. movement
2. protect internal organs 3. store calcium/phosphorus 4. produce red/white blood cells |
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Bone cells - Osteoclasts:
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Cells that secrete acids and constantly remove bone
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Bone cells - Osteoblasts:
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Cells that constantly rebuild bone
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What causes osteoporosis?
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Osteoclasts work faster than osteoblasts
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What is the function of bone marrow?
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produces red/white blood cells and stores fat
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Cartilage shock absorbers between the bones wear away:
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osteoarthritis
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Unnatural curving of the spine:
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scoliosis
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Softening of the bones due to vitamin D deficiency:
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rickets
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Spinal cord sticks out back, birth defect
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spina bifida
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If ATP energy can be produced by glycolysis and Kreb's cycle, why run the ETC? (mitochondria diagram)
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Because the ETC produces 32 ATPs
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Why do we breathe oxygen?
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Because it is the final electron acceptor and without it, the ETC cannot run
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Where is metabolic water produced?
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At end of the ETC
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Where do free oxygen radicals come from?
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If hydrogen doesn't bind to oxygen, free radical is produced
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What are differences/similarities between photosynthesis/mitochondria?
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Similar: transferring electrons, cytochrome complex, ATP synthase, H+ gradient used to make ATP
Different: H ions pump opposite way, different final electron acceptor |
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Where do fats and proteins enter cellular respiration?
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At different stages, often after glycolysis
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How does cyanide kill you?
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Blocks cytochrome oxidase, stops ETC
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What is brown fat and how does it work?
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Special fat cell where ATP shuts off. Instead, it releases energy as heat - found in mammals that hibernate and human infants
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Why does cancer cause people to los weight?
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Cancer cells grow so fast they often lack sufficient oxygen: they are limited to glycolysis which is too inefficient (only 2 ATP), cells can't get enough energy, so people lose weight
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Exchange of gases between an organism and the surrounding environment?
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Respiration
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Increasing the flow of water or air over respiratory surfaces?
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Ventilation
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Four important points about diffusion of gases:
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1. gases must pass through liquids
2. greater surface area = more gas for diffusion 3. diffusion depends on gas concentration and pressure 4. oxygen diffuses 8000 times faster in air than in water |
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What type of water holds the most/least dissolved oxygen?
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Most dissolved: cold, fresh water
Least dissolved: warm, salt water |
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How much oxygen does water hold compared to air?
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Air holds 20 times as much dissolved oxygen as water.
This is because oxygen is nonpolar, water is polar - don't want to mix |
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What forces drive gas into water?
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atmospheric pressure, hemoglobin, concentration gradients
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Outfoldings of body surface that are suspended in water for gas exchange:
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Gills
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Insects - spiracles:
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Portholes on the outside of an insect's body for gas exchange. They connect to the tracheal system, which is a system of air tubes throughout the body
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Does the open circulatory system of insects transport oxygen and CO2?
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No, because the tracheal system touches all cells in the body.
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Amphibians - positive pressure:
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Air pushed into lungs then sucked out
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Metamorphosis:
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Many amphibians use gills as juveniles, then lungs as adults
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Pulmocutaneous respiration:
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Respiration through the skin
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Birds - air sacs:
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Air sacs attached to lungs (2 full breathing cycles)
MOST EFFICIENT - very high oxygen demand in air |
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Functions of the air sac system in birds:
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1. One-way air flow
2. Prevents mixing of old and new air 3. Reduces weight |
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Mammals - negative pressure:
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Air sucked in, then pushed out
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What kind of ventilation do mammals have?
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tidal ventilation, in and out like tides
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How do mammals ventilate?
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With a diaphragm. Dome shaped muscle below the lungs
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How does the diaphragm work?
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Moves down, air sucks into lungs.
Moves up, air pushed out of lungs. |
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What is the name for the windpipe?
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Trachea
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What is the voicebox called?
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Larynx
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What does the Trachea branch into?
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Bronchii
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What do the Bronchi branch into?
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Bronchioles
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What do the Bronchioles branch into?
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Alveoli - gas base, where gas exchange occurs
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How many alveoli does the average human have?
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300 million
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Where does gas exchange take place?
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alveoli
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How do we know when to breathe more?
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When CO2 levels in our blood get too high (acidity), not O2 levels
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Involuntary contraction of the muscles and constriction of the airway:
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Asthma
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Loss of elasticity in airways - small airways collapse during exhalation
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Emphysema
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Combination of emphysema and chronic bronchitis - airways become narrowed making it difficult to breathe:
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COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)
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Ventilation to the lungs is stopped for short periods, can be caused by brains inability to regulate:
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Apnea
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Brain has trouble reading CO2 levels properly and doesn't tell infant to breathe:
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SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome)
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Inflammation of lungs that leads to accumulation of fluid and impairs lung function:
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Pneumonia
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Low fatality rate for individuals with healthy immune system:
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H1N1
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Circulatory system:
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System of tubes and pumps that circulate fluids throughout the body
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Blood:
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Contains blood plasma and blood cells - never leaves blood vessels
Blood is considered a body tissue |
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Interstitial fluid:
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Watery fluid surrounding cells (tissue fluid) - moves in and out of blood cells
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Where does Interstitial fluid drain?
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Into the lymphatic system (part of immune system)
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What drives the movement of interstitial fluid in and out of blood vessels?
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Pressure differences between inside and outside of blood vessels - out on artery side, back in on vein side
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Hemolymph:
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Mixture of blood and interstitial fluid
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Open circulatory system:
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Hemolymph not contained in vessels
-can't control flow -works only for small animals -body movements increase circulation |
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Closed circulatory system:
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Blood never leaves vessels
-blood travels faster in vessels -control blood flow by controlling vessel diameter -allows higher metabolic rates/activity |
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Hemophilia:
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Too little fibrin protein produced, trouble forming blood clots
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Respiratory pigments:
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Proteins in blood cells that carry gases
-allows blood to carry more oxygen than by diffusion alone |
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What is your respiratory pigment?
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Hemoglobin
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What is the most common blood disorder?
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Anemia: blood carries too little oxygen
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3 Important characteristics of blood vessels:
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1. elastic walls
2. muscles to control diameter 3. valves to prevent backflow |
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Vasoconstriction:
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Vessel gets smaller, blood pressure goes up - you get excited
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Vasodilation:
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Vessel gets bigger, blood pressure goes down - you get sleepy
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Coronary artery:
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Supplies the heart with blood, oxygen, and food
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Lipids accumulate inside artery walls, narrows the inside diameter, increases blood pressure
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Atherosclerosis
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Artery walls harden, lose elasticity and can't handle pressure
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Arteriosclerosis
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Heart attack:
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loss of blood/oxygen to heart, heart muscle dies
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Myocardial infarction:
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Tissues irreversibly damaged by lack of oxygen
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Myocardial ischemia:
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Tissues not dead and can be saved if oxygen (blood supply) is restored
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Ischemia:
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A problem with blood quantity, not quality
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Section of blood vessel is taken from one body part and used to replace a clogged artery:
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Coronary bypass surgery
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Angioplasty:
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Procedures to remove or deal with plaques
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Laser:
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Blasts the plaque with lasers
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Balloon:
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Inflate a balloon in the artery to open up the artery
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Stent:
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Small, hollow tube put inside an artery to hold it open
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Blood clot inside a blood vessel:
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Thrombus
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When a plaque or thrombus breaks free and moves to another body part:
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Embolism
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Balloon-like bulge in a blood vessel; risk of bursting
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Aneurysm
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Disturbance in blood supply to the brain:
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Stroke
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Hypertension:
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Chronic high blood pressure
-causes heart attacks, strokes -caused by increases blood volume |
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Hypotension:
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Low blood pressure
-caused by low blood volume such as after an accident or excessive bleeding |
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Antigens:
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Any substance that stimulates an immune response
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Separate ciruculatory system that transports int. fluid from cells back to the bloods circulatory system
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Lymphatic system
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What is the function of the lymphatic system?
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Filters pathogens and antigens from int. fluid
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Where are white blood cells formed? Where do they mature?
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Bone marrow; thymus gland
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Filters out old red blood cells, produces white blood cells, and removes dead pathogens/antigens:
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Spleen
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What are lymph nodes?
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Where int. fluid is filtered; swollen glands mean you are fighting an infection
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Non-specific defenses:
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attack any pathogen that is not recognized as 'self'
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First non-specific defense against infection and disease:
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1. skin, exoskeleton, other body covering
2. tears, sweat, and saliva kills bacteria 3. mucus washes pathogens away 4. stomach acid and other acids |
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Second non-specific defense against infection and disease:
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1. natural killer cells: white blood cells that attack backteria
perforins: proteins that poke holes in pathogens 2. macrophages: white blood cells that can eat whole bacteria |
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Third non-specific defense against infection and disease:
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Inflammation: redness, swelling, heat
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Makes capillaries dilate and become leaky causing redness and swelling:
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Histamines
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Prostaglandins:
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Hormone produced by cells near affected area, induces fever and inflammation
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Why do you respond to infection or injury with inflammation?
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Traps pathogens at the site of injury
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Why do we get fever?
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Immune system works better at about 100F, pathogens don't like high temperatures
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Specific defenses (good but slow):
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Only attacks certain pathogens - good because cells have memory. If body has been exposed to antigen before, response time is shorter.
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T Cells:
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WBCs that help control the immune response, tells B cells when to divide
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B Cells:
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WBCs that make antibodies that attach to antigens
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Antibodies:
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Proteins that bind to antigens and signal other cells to attack the antigens
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B Cells divide into two different cell types:
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Plasma and Memory cells
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Plasma cells:
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Antibody factories: each plasma cell can produce millions of antibodies
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Memory cells:
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Plasma cells that remain dormant until the same antigen is found in body again - don't get sick from same pathogen twice
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What are immunodeficiency diseases?
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Diseases in which the immune system itself is attacked
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How does the HIV virus work?
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Attacks and destroys T Cells
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What happens if you don't have enough T Cells?
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-no plasma cells
-no memory cells -body can't fight any infections |
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Cell surface proteins that mark cells as 'self' or 'non-self'.
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Mhc proteins
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What are autoimmune disorders?
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When your immune system attacks your own cells
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Know 3 examples of autoimmune disorders:
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Multiple Sclerosis, Type 1 Diabetes, Graves' Disease, Rheumatoid arthritis, lupus
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How do vaccines work?
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Dead pathogens or antigens are injected into the body - they simulate the production of memory cells
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What is passive immunity?
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Short-term immunity using antibodies produced outside the body
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Antibodies are collected, concentrated, and injected into a snakebite victim:
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snake-bite antivenin
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Mothers transfer antibodies through breast-feeding:
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maternal antibodies
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When traveling outside of country, you need antibodies from people from that area:
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Gamma globulin
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Over-production of antibodies, stimulates a release of histamines and causes a drop in blood pressure
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allergic reaction
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Anaphylactic shock - what do you take if it occurs?
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A whole-body allergic reaction. Can be fatal - take a quick dose of epinephrine or adrenaline to raise blood pressure
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What is the deadliest infectious disease in the world?
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Acute Respiratory Infection
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Of the eight deadliest infectious diseases, how many are caused by bacteria or viruses?
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Seven
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What is a pathogen?
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An infectious disease-causing organism
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What is an infection?
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A pathogen invades a cell or multi-celled organism
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What is an epidemic?
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A disease spreads through part of a population
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What is a Pandemic?
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Epidemic spreads through many populations
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Why don't pathogens kill us all?
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1. We evolved with them. Our immune system can kill most of them.
2. They kill each other |
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Where do antibiotics come from?
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From bacteria and fungi because they compete for resources and infect each other
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Prudent Parasite Argument:
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Parasites should not kill their their hosts or else they can't be spread to other hosts.
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5 parts of Bacterial Reproduction:
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Binary Fission
Conjugation Transformation Transduction Endospores |
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Binary Fission:
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A sexual reproduction, produces 2 identical cells, can be very fast
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Conjugation:
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Direct exchange of DNA through conjugation tube or sex
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Transformation:
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Uptake of DNA directly through from the environment
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Transduction:
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Transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another by a virus
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Endospores:
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Bacterial spore that can survive harsh conditions (heat, radiation, drying)
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Bacteria either evolve by mutation or acquire from another bacterium the ability to detoxify a particular antibiotic.
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Antibiotic resistance
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Symbiosis between bacteria and plant roots that helps plants get NITROGEN out of the soil.
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Rhitobium
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Viruses - 3 things:
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1. 1,000-10,000 times smaller than bacteria
2. DNA or RNA in a protein coat 3. cannot reproduce itself, must use a host cell |
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Viroids - 3 things:
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1. Strands of RNA: no protein coat, no protein coding genes
2. Pathogens of plants and crop species 3. Resemble introns (non coding regions of eukaryotic DNA) |
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Prions - 3 things:
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1. Infectious proteins (ex. mad cow disease)
2. Misfolded proteins that make other proteins misfold and accumulate in brain tissue 3. Resistant to boiling, baking, radiation, and disinfectans |
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Protists:
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Single celled eukaryotes placed in their own kingdom
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What are dinoflagellates?
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Single celled protists; cause algal blooms
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What is Red Tide?
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Dinoflagellate population explosion. Release toxins into the water that can kill fish and you.
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What are algae?
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Colonial protists, not plants.
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Golden algae:
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Diatoms. Give off as much O2 every year as all land plants
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Brown algae:
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A.k.a kelp: important structure in marine ecosystems
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Red algae:
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Source of agar used in jellies and cosmetics and eaten as food.
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Green algae:
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Sea lettuce, not a plant but involved into the green plants, common ancestor of all green plants.
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Fungi:
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diseases are called mycoses
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What important role do fungi play in ecosystems?
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Are decomposers in the ecosystem, fungicides kill fungi
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What is the main component of the fungal cell wall?
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Chitin
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What are hyphae?
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A chain of connected cells
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What is a mycelium?
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An interwoven mat or hyphae that forms the body of the fungus
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What type of nutrition do Fungi have?
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Absorptive - secrete powerful exoenzymes that digest food outside the body
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Saprobic fungi:
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Feed on dead organisms
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Parasitic fungi:
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Feed on living organisms
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Specialized parasitic hyphae that invade living cells and secrete digestive enxymes
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Haustoria
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Rapidly growing asexually reproducing fungus
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Mold
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Unicellular fungi that live in damp places and can reproduce by budding.
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Yeast
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A symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic cyanobacterial cell.
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Lichen
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A symbiotic relationship between plant roots and fungi.
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Mycorrihizae
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Leaf cutter ants:
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Fungi farmers; live symbiotically with fungi
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