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74 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Action Potential
- Electrochemical impulses that send signals
- Localized area of depolarization
- Wavelike motion
- Can be caused by sodium influx (all other cells) or Calcium (heart)
Synaptic Transmission
- Electric to chemical signal by release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
Depolarization
RMP = -70 mV
- Stimulus causes voltage gated sodium channels to open
- ++++ charge increase in the cell until threshold potential reached
- Goes up to +40 mV (where the AP happens)
Threshold potential
-50 mV

- Must be reached in order for an action potential to occur
- "ALL OR NONE". Either there is a reaction or there isn't.
Repolarization
- Inside of the cell is positive because voltage gated sodium channels have been open (not for long though)
- Voltage gated potassium channels take time to open and diffuse out (efflux)
- Overshoot RMP to go to -90 mV
- Na/K ATPase brings back to RMP
Salatory Conduction
- Axons of neurons wrapped on sheath of schwaan cells (PNS), oligodendrites in CNS
- Speeds up signal by forcing AP to jump from node to node
- Na/K ATPase works less hard because of decreased area
Refractory Period (2)
- There's a limit to how much a neuron can conduct and how soon after an AP it can conduct again
- Action Potential makes a neuron unresponsive for a short time
- Absolute and Relative
Absolute Refractory
- No matter how strong another action potential is, the neuron will NOT FIRE another action potential
- Inactivated voltage gated sodium channel until RMP reached again
Relative Refractory
- Action Potential can be induced, but it has to be stronger than normal, immediately follows the absolute refractory period
Acetylcholine
- Neurotransmitter released for neuromuscular junctions, and pretty much responsible for everything everywhere
- When binding to a postsynaptic neuron, opens a sodium channel and depolarizes postsynapse
Acetylcholinesterase
- Enzyme degrading remainder of AcH left in the cleft
- Getting rid of Ach will close sodium channels it opened to transmit the signal
Exciatory
- Neurotransmitter starts AP/depolarization wave
Inhibitory
- Neurotransmitter induces hyperpolarization (more negative than RMP)
Can a neurotransmitter be both exciatory and inhibitory?
Yes! Depends entirely on the receptor!
Can you control the rate of an action potential?
Sure. Increase the stimulus (number of action potentials), and you increase the frequency at which they occur
"Sensory" Neuron
- Receives information
- Delegated by PNS, carried out by CNS
"Motor" Neuron
- Carries info toward organs that can act on info it received from PNS/CNS
Efferent Neuron
- Carries information AWAY from CNS to INNERVATE effectors
- "Sensory"
Afferent Neuron
- Carries information TOWARD the CNS
- "Motor"
Reflexes
- Direct response, motor to sensor
- Occurs without conscious thought and often bypasses the CNS
General Organization of the Nervous System
- Nervous System is separated into CNS and PNS
- CNS consists of brain, spinal cord
- PNS consists of everything else, split into somatic and autonomic
- Somatic is "voluntary", and autonomic is "involuntary".
- Autonomic is split into parasympathetic and sympathetic. Holy CRAP!
Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Brain, spinal cord
- Hindbrain (Medulla, Pons, Cerebellum)
- Midbrain
- Forebrain (Diencephalon, Telencephalon)
Cerebrospinal Fluid
- Shock Absorption
- Nutrient and waste exchange
- Coats entire brain and spinal cord
Spinal Cord is responsible for....
- Simple reflexes
- Primitive processes
- Central hub of nerves connecting to everything everywhere
Hindbrain (3)
- Medulla
- Pons
- Cerebellum
Medulla is responsible for...
- Autonomic processes
- Blood pressure, respiratory rate, vomitting
Pons is responsible for...
- Balance
- Antigravity posture
Cerebellum is responsible for...
- Coordination and complex movements
- Balance, antigravity.
- Damage this part and you get bad hand eye coordination
Midbrain
- Relay for visual and auditory information
- Responsible for arousal (wakefulness)
Brainstem
Medulla + Pons + Midbrain
Forebrain
- Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus)
- Telencephalon (hemispheres)
Thalamus
- Part of the forebrain and diencephalon
- Relay for somatic (conscious) thought
Hypothalamus
- Part of the forebrain and diencephalon
- Controls homeostatic functions like temperature, sex drive, rage, hunger
- Control center for endocrine system
Telencephalon
- Consists of cerebreal hemispheres, basal nuclei, limbic, corpus callosum
Cerebreal Hemispheres (Cortex)
- Gray and white matter
- Outside of the brain is gray, inside is white
- White is meylenated axons, while gray is TONS of somas
- Responsible for intelligence, conversation, memory, all higher mind
- Temporal (2), Occipital, frontal, parietal
Basal Nuclei
Important in regulating body movement
Corpus Callosum
Collects left and right brain, if you separate this there is no communication and you can act as two separate entities.. hmm..
Parts of the PNS
- Everything else, remember?
- Cranial Nerves, Spinal Nerves, examples: vagus nerve, all somatic motor neurons, Adrenal Medulla
- Parasympathetic and Sympathetic
Somatic Nervous System
VOLUNTARY control of things like skeletal muscles
Autonomic Nervous System
INVOLUNTARY control of things like smooth muscle (heart, valves), glands
Vagus Nerve
- Example of a cranial nerve that directly innervates the heart
- Decreases heart rate, can increase GI activity in parasympathetic response
Sympathetic Nervous System
- "Fight or Flight"
- Use energy
- Preganglions are in thoracocolumbar, that makes sense, right?
- Short axons, use nonepinephrine
All somatic motor neurons do ... (3)
- Innervate skeletal muscles
- Use ACH as their neurotransmitter
- Cell bodies are in brain stem or spinal cord
Parasympathetic Nervous System
- "Rest and Digest"
- Store energy
- Long axons, use ACH
- Preganglions are in craniosacular area, this makes sense right?
Hormone
- Secreted into bloodstream
- Effect is distant
Endocrine Gland
- DUCTLESS gland
- Secretes into bloodstream
Exocrine Gland
- Duct gland
- Secrets product into environment by way of gastrointestinal lumen or outside (skin)
Hormone Receptor
Tissue specific, ligand specific binding site
Peptide Hormones
- Synthesized in ER, modified in Golgi (like everything else)
- Hydrophobic, large
- Cannot cross plasma membrane and rely on second messenger system
- Purpose is that they modify activity of existing enzymes
- Rapid effect, duration brief, STORED (always around)
Steroid Hormones
- Hydrophobic, small
- Synthesized from cholesterol in smooth ER and can diffuse through the plasma membrane
- If they AREN'T NEEDED, they WONT BE MADE
- Carried by other proteins because they can't dissolve in blood plasma
- Slow (because they have to be transcribed), but longer lasting
How do we regulate hormone production?
- Dictated by physiological need, signals from brain
- Feedback inhibition
- Hypothalamus (PNS) secretes releasing and inhibitory factors where the target is the anterior pituitary gland, which controls hormone production
What is the central command unit of the Endocrine System?
The HYPOTHALAMUS!
What is the first lieutenant of the Endocrine System?
The ANTERIOR PITUITARY!
Anterior Pituitary's Job
- Secreting factors that affect activity of another thing (tells the glands to produce milk, tells the thyroid to release TH)
- Regulated by hypothalamus
Portal System
- Connection of two capillary beds through veins without having to go through the heart
- Best example is the portal system used in the pituitary gland that connects the anterior pituitary and the hypothalamus and allows regulation of the other
Anterior Pituitary Hormones (6)
- F (FSH)
- L (LH)
- A (ACTH)
- T (TSH)
- P (Prolactin)
- H (HGH)
Posterior Pituitary Hormones (2)
- Vasopressin/ADH
- Oxytocin
Prolactin
- Initiate mammary gland and milk production
- Inputs stimulate hypothalamus to stimulate Anterior Pit
TSH
- Increases hormone synthesis in the thyroid
- Stimulates release of TH (T3/T4)
ACTH
- Increases growth and secretory activity of the Adrenal Cortex (kidneys!), especially cortisol
- Circadian rhythm stimulation, stress stimulation
LH
- Acts on the ovarian follicle
- Induces ovulation and maintains the corpus luteum
FSH
- Development of the ovarian follicle
- Stimulates secretion progesterone
Vasopressin/ADH
- Responsible for water retention in the kidney
- Increases permeability of collecting duct of kidney (Always Diggin' Holes)
- Can also lead to HTN
Oxytocin
- Decreases breast milk production
- Causes uterus contractions
Thyroid Produces... (1!)
TH (T3/T4)
TH (T3/T4)
- In children: responsible for physical and mental development
- In adult: controls temperature and metabolic rate (hypo people are fat)
Adrenal Medulla Produces.... (2)
- Epinephrine
- Norepinephrine
Epinephrine/Norephinephrine
- Stress hormone (Sympathetic)
- Released into blood stream through ductless glands
- Increases HR, contracts blood vessels, dilates air passages

- Same thing, different receptors basically.
Adrenal Cortex Produces... (3)
- Cortisol
- Aldosterone
- Sex Steroids
Cortisol
- Longterm stress/anxiety response
- Anterior Pituitary (ACTH) response
- Increases protein catabolism, increase blood sugar, suppress immune system (decrease inflammation)
Aldosterone
- Increases reabsorption of sodium and water, secretion of potassium
- Effect: increases blood volume, increase blood pressure
- Acts on Distal Tubules, Collecting Ducts of Kidney
Pancreas Produces (2)
- Insulin
- Glycogen
Insulin
- Made by Beta Cells in Pancreas in response to high blood sugar
- After a meal,
- Decrease blood glucose, increase glycogen and fat storage
- Glycolysis
Glucagon
- Made by Alpha Cells of Pancrease when blood glucose is low (between meals and exercise)
- Increase blood glucose, decrease glycogen and fat storage
- Tells the liver "crap, release the stuff we've stored!"
- Gluconeogenesis