Biology 2 Mid-Term Exam Term Sheet

Front 1

PCR

Back 1

-polymerase chain reaction
-used in DNA sequencing
-make many copies of DNA, for example, for gel electrophoresis

Front 2

Recombinant DNA

Back 2

-is made by connecting, or recombining, fragments of DNA from different sources
-can be inserted into a host organism's chromosomes and that organism will use this foreign DNA as if it were its own.
-There is the a three-step process that produces a transgenic organism containing foreign DNA

Front 3

RFLP

Back 3

-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms
-a variation in the DNA sequence of a genome that can be detected by breaking the DNA into pieces with restriction enzymes and analyzing the size of the resulting fragments by gel electrophoresis.
-a technique that can identify some differences in sequence

Front 4

Gel Electrophoresis

Back 4

-a technique used for the separation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), or protein molecules using an electric current applied to a gel matrix.
- It is usually performed for analytical purposes, but may be used as a preparative technique prior to use of other methods such as mass spectrometry, RFLP, PCR, cloning, DNA sequencing, or Southern blotting for further characterization.

Front 5

agarose

Back 5

-material in gel
-Agar or agar agar is a gelatinous substance derived from seaweed.

Front 6

buffer

Back 6

-In studies like DNA fingerprinting the lysis buffer is used for DNA isolation.
- A lysis buffer is used for the purpose of lysing cells for use in experiments that analyze the compounds of the cells
There are many different kind of lysis buffers that one can apply, depending on what analysis the cell lysate will be used for e.g. red blood cell lysis buffer.

Front 7

micropipet

Back 7

-used to measure really small stuff
-Pipettes are used to accurately measure and dispense small volumes of liquid.
-The capacity of a micropipette can range from less than 1µl to 1000µl (1ml), while macropipettes can measure volumes greater than 1ml.

Front 8

sickle-cell anemia

Back 8

- a person has slow blood flow, small vessels are blocked, and results in tissue damage and pain. It can also cause disorders.
- Families whose originated from Africa and in white Americans whose families originated in countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.
- the some or all red blood cells are crystallized and look weird.

Front 9

AA

Back 9

- a normal individual
- may get extremely sick or die from malaria

Front 10

AS

Back 10

- a carrier with sickle-cell trait
-codominance( In co-dominance, the phenotypes of both homozygotes are produced in the heterozygote.)
-not likely will die from malaria

Front 11

SS

Back 11

- a sickle-cell sufferer
-not likely will die from malaria

Front 12

restriction enzyme

Back 12

- DNA-cutting enzymes that can cut both strands of DNA molecule at a specific nucleotide sequence.
-Such enzymes, found in bacteria and archaea, are thought to have evolved to provide a defense mechanism against invading viruses.
-Restriction enzymes recognize a specific sequence of nucleotides[2] and produce a double-stranded cut in the DNA.

Front 13

evolution

Back 13

-the modern theory of evolution is the fundamental concept of all the scientific study of biology.
- defined as the chance in populations over time
- The father of the modern theory of evolution is Charles Darwin

Front 14

variation

Back 14

- After Malthus' ideas about populations Darwin then observed that he could see variations within his pidgeon flock.
- Variation in populations was one of the things that Darwin observed.

Front 15

fitness

Back 15

-To Darwin fitness was evidence of an organism's physical and behavioral traits that lead to survival and reproduction.

Front 16

adaptation

Back 16

- According to Darwin, any inherited characteristic that increases an organism's fitness for survival is a/an adaptation
- any trait that aids the chances of survival and reproduction
- adaptations also are only kind of inherited traits that increase success of the organism.

Front 17

common descent

Back 17

-A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common ancestor.

Front 18

fossil record

Back 18

-provide a record of early life and evolutionary history
-Relative dating by looking at layers of sedimentary rock
- Absolute dating using the relative amounts of radioactive elements preserved in a fossil

Front 19

homologous structures

Back 19

- similar structures that have different functions
- the skeletal structures of mammals are all similar in design

Front 20

vestigial structures

Back 20

-organs and structures that don't seem to have any useful function but still exist
- like snake legs, nictitating membranes, canine legs, and nipples on males

Front 21

biochemical similarities

Back 21

-DNA
-ATP
-amino acids
-cytochrome

Front 22

paleontologists

Back 22

-scientists who specialize in the study of rocks and changes in the Earth are this

Front 23

Charles Darwin

Back 23

-The father of the modern theory of evolution
-observed the wildlife and their environments around the world for 5 years on the HMS Beagle
- created the process of Natural Selection
- gotten most of the recognition for the modern theory of evolution because in 1559 he published his book explaining his theory, the books title is "On the Origin by Means of Natural Selection"

Front 24

use and disuse

Back 24

-basically, the more you use something, the better it gets through evolution, the less you use something, the more it gets worse until it eventually is gone.

Front 25

artificial selection

Back 25

-Breeding organisms with specific traits in order to produce offspring with identical traits.

Front 26

natural selection

Back 26

- a mechanism for change in populations
- occurs when organisms with favorable variations survive, reproduce, and pass their variations to the next generation.
-organisms without these variations are less likely to survive and reproduce

Front 27

population

Back 27

-Thomas' idea that the human population grows faster than Earth's food supply
-Darwin realized that individuals struggle to compete in changing environmental conditions.

Front 28

gene pool

Back 28

-All of the alleles of the population's genes as being together in a large pool

Front 29

relative frequency or allelic frequency

Back 29

-the percentage of any specific allele in the gene pool is called this
- scientists calculate the allelic frequency of an allele in the same way that a baseball player calculates a batting average.

Front 30

allele

Back 30

- alternative forms of a gene for each variation of a trait of an organism

Front 31

species

Back 31

-group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring in nature

Front 32

niche

Back 32

-role or position a species has in its environment; includes all biotic and abiotic interactions as an animal meets its needs for survival and reproduction

Front 33

speciation

Back 33

-The evolution of new species, a process which is called this
-speciation occurs when members of similar populations no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring within their natural environment
-a process that produces two species from one

Front 34

adaptive radiation

Back 34

-divergent evolution in which ancestral species evolve into an array of species to fit a number of diverse habitats
-adaptive radiation in both plants and animals has occurred and continues to occur throughout the world and is common on islands.

Front 35

convergent evolution

Back 35

- a pattern of evolution in which distantly related organisms evolve similar traits
-occurs when unrelated species occupy similar environments in different parts of the world.
-because they share similar environmental pressures, they share similar pressures of natural selection

Front 36

classification

Back 36

-the grouping of objects or information based on similarities
-one of the tools that biologists use to better understand organisms so they organize them

Front 37

phylogeny

Back 37

-evolutionary history of a species based on comparative relationships of structures and comparisons of modern life forms with fossils.
-One biological system of classification that is based on phylogeny is cladistics.
Scientists who use cladistics assume that as groups of organisms diverge and evolve from a common ancestral group, they retain some unique inherited characteristics that taxonomists call derived traits

Front 38

binomial nomenclature

Back 38

- the 2 word naming system used in classification
-includes the genus and the specific epithet

Front 39

taxonomy

Back 39

-the branch of biology that groups that groups and names organisms based on studies of their different characteristics.

Front 40

taxon

Back 40

- a group of organisms, which a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit
-Usually a taxon is given a name and a rank, although neither is a requirement. Defining what belongs or does not belong to such a taxonomic group is done by a taxonomist

Front 41

6 kingdoms

Back 41

Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, protists, fungi, plants, animals, anthropods, mollusks and worms, and jellyfishes and sponges

Front 42

immunity

Back 42

Immunity is a medical term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. Immunity involves both specific and non-specific components. The non-specific components act either as barriers or as eliminators of wide range of pathogens irrespective of antigenic specificity. Other components of the immune system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and are able to generate pathogen-specific immunity.

Front 43

1st line of defense

Back 43

skin, mucous membrane, cilia, Hcl, tears, temperature

Front 44

lymphocyte

Back 44

-type of white blood cell stored in lymph nodes that defends the body against foreign agents

Front 45

anitbody(Ab)

Back 45

-proteins that the body produces in response to invasion by Ag
-ab neutralizes toxins
-clumps viruses of bacteria

Front 46

Antigen(Ag)

Back 46

-any foreign protein or polysaccharide that stimulates the body to produce antibodies
- ANTIbody + GENerating = Antigen

Front 47

passive immunity

Back 47

-the Ab comes from another source:
- Ab from another through the placenta
or from the
-mother's milk
-Ab is made and then injected ex:snake bite, bee sting

Front 48

active immunity

Back 48

a natural process:
-get infected
-make Ab
-get well
-immunity in the memory bank
-5 days, 3,000 to 30,000 Ab/sec.

Front 49

vaccine

Back 49

-substance consisting of weakened, dead, or incomplete portions of pathogens or antigens that produce an immune response when injected into the body.

Front 50

virus

Back 50

composed of
-nucleic acids enclosed in a protein coat called a capsid
-smaller than the smallest bacterium
-nucleic acid either DNA or RNA
-some enzymes-lysozymes to break into the host cell
-largely non-living but reproduces
-many cause diseases in plants and animals

Front 51

obligate intracellular parasite

Back 51

-"means something needs a host"
-"lives off cell's resources"

Front 52

Wendell Stanley

Back 52

-identified the first viruses while he was working with the
-TMV aka Tobacco Mosaic Virus

Front 53

TMV

Back 53

tobacco mosaic virus
- discovered by Wendell Stanley

Front 54

receptor site

Back 54

-before a virus can replicate it must recognize and attach to a receptor site on the host cell

Front 55

capsid

Back 55

-outer coat of proteins that surrounds a virus's inner core of nucleic acid; arrangement of capsid proteins determines the virus's shape
-Some relatively large viruses, such as human viruses, may have an additional layer, called an envelope, surrounding their capsids

Front 56

nucleic acid

Back 56

-The core of nucleic acid contains a virus's genetic material.
- Viral nucleic acid is either DNA or RNA and contains instructions for making copies of the virus.

Front 57

E.coli

Back 57

Escheria coli

Front 58

lytic cycle

Back 58

-viral replication cycle in which a virus takes over a host cell's genetic material and uses the host cell's structures and energy to replicate until the host cell bursts, killing it
-the viral genes alter the host cell to make new viruses, the host cell uses its own enzymes, raw materials, and energy to make copies of viral genes
-the new viruses can then infect and kill other host cells

Front 59

lysogenic cycle

Back 59

-a replication cycle in which the virus's nucleic acid is integrated into the host cell's chromosome.
-begins in the same way as a lytic cycle but instead of immediately taking over the host's genetic material, the viral DNA is integrated into the host cell's chromosome.
-Which is called a provirus.

Front 60

prophage

Back 60

A prophage is a phage genome inserted as part of the linear structure of the DNA chromosome of a bacterium. A temperate phage integrated into the host chromosome or existing as an extrachromosomal plasmid. This is a latent form of a bacteriophage in which the viral genes are incorporated into the bacterial chromosomes without causing disruption of the bacterial cell.

Front 61

parasite

Back 61

-symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits at the expense of another, usually another species.

Front 62

retrovirus

Back 62

-has an enzyme that transcribes their RNA code to the DNA code of the host cell
- cause the infected cell to make an enzyme "RNA-dependent DNA polymerase"
-RNA acts as a template to form another complementary strand of DNA

Front 63

reverse transcriptase

Back 63

-codes the RNA back to a new strand of DNA

Front 64

prokaryote

Back 64

-unicellular organisms
-enclosed in a prokaryotic cell

Front 65

bacteriophage

Back 65

a virus that infects a bacterium

Front 66

viral diseases

Back 66

-hepatitis: a lysogenic provirus that causes hepatitis B.
-cold/flu: caused by the influenza virus
-measles: a lysogenic provirus
-polio: a retrovirus caused by RNA
-herpes: a lysogenic provirus that is caused by the herpes simplex II
-chicken pox: also a lysogenic provirus that can cause shingles

Front 67

bacteria

Back 67

-a bacterium consists of a very small cell that has all the structures necessary to carry out its life functions
-Ribosomes are smaller than those of eukaryotes
-the cell wall protects the bacterium by preventing it from bursting

Front 68

methanogen

Back 68

-methane-producing bacteria

Front 69

bacilli

Back 69

-Rod-shaped bacteria

Front 70

cocci

Back 70

-Spherical-shaped bacteria

Front 71

sprilla

Back 71

-sprial-shaped bacteria

Front 72

gram stain

Back 72

-a technique that distinguishes two groups of bacteria because the stain reflects a basic difference in the composition of bacterial cell walls.
-After staining, gram-positive bacteria are purple, and gram-negative bacteria are pink.

Front 73

nitrogen fixation

Back 73

-by bacteria converts (N2) nitrogen in soil into usable fertilizer
-especially in nodules on the roots of legumes

Front 74

decomposer

Back 74

break down organic material + recycle the basic organic compounds

Front 75

obligate aerobe

Back 75

mycobacterium tuberculosis
- require oxygen for respiration

Front 76

obligate anaerobes

Back 76

-Treponema paillidum
-is killed by oxygen

Front 77

binary fission

Back 77

-bacteria split to produce two new identical bacteria
- copy chromosomes
-attached to cell
-grows layer

Front 78

conjugation

Back 78

-bacteria hook together and transfer a piece of DNA(plasmid) which results in a new strain.

Front 79

endospore

Back 79

-tiny structure that contains bacteria DNA, resists tough outer problems

Front 80

environmental benefits

Back 80

-nitrogen fixation
-recycling of nutrients
-food and medicines

Front 81

bacterial diseases

Back 81

strep throat
- inhale or ingest through mouth
- fever, sore throat, swollen neck, glands
-antibiotic
tuberculosis
-inhale
-fatigue, fever, night sweats, cough, weight loss, chest pain
-antibiotic
Tetanus
-puncture wound
-stiff jaw, muscle spasms, paralysis
-open and clean wound, antibiotic;give antitoxin
Lyme disease
-bite of infected tick
-rash at site of bite, chills
-antibiotic
Dental cavities
-bacteria in mouth
-destruction of tooth enamel, toothache
-remove and fill the destroyed area
Diphtheria
-inhale or close contact
-sore throat, fever
-vaccination to prevent, antibiotics

Front 82

pGLO

Back 82

-plasmid containing the GFP sequence & ampicillin resistance genes, which codes for beta-lactamase

Front 83

protista

Back 83

-this Kingdom contains the most diverse organisms of all the kingdoms
-the characteristic that all share is that they all are eukaryotes and carry out their metabolic processes inside their membrane-bound organelles.

Front 84

Ciliophora

Back 84

-use the cilia that cover their bodies to move
-live in every kind of aquatic habitat
-many structures found in these cells may work together to perform just one important life function.

Front 85

Zoomastiginia

Back 85

-consists of protists called flagellates, which have one or more flagella
-flagellated protists move by whipping their flagella from side to side
- some are parasites that cause disease in animals, such as African sleeping sickness in humans. others are helpful

Front 86

Sporozoa

Back 86

-often called sporozoans because most produce spores
- a spore is a reproductive cell that forms without fertilization and produces a new organism
-all sporozoans are parasites

Front 87

Euglenophyta

Back 87

-unicellular, aquatic protists that have both plant and animal characteristics.
-lack a cell wall made of cellulose
-have a flexible pellicle made of protein that surrounds the cell membrane.

Front 88

Dinoflagellata

Back 88

-have cell walls that are composed of thick cellulose plates
-contain chlorophyll, carotenoids, and red pigments
-several species produce toxins.

Front 89

Rhodophyta

Back 89

-mostly unicelllular marine seaweeds
-body of a seaweed is called a thallus and lacks roots, stems, or leaves
- red algae also contain photosynthetic pigments called phycobilins which absorb green, violet, and blue light.

Front 90

cilia

Back 90

-short, numerous, hairlike projections composed of pairs of microtubules; frequently aid in locomotion

Front 91

flagella

Back 91

-long projections composed of microtubules; found on some cell surfaces; they help propel cells and organisms by a whiplike motion

Front 92

contractile vacuole

Back 92

-because a paramecium lives in a freshwater, hypotonic environment, water constantly enters its by osmosis. A pair of contractile vacuoles pump out the excess water.

Front 93

pseudopodia

Back 93

-in protozoans, cytoplasm-containing extensions of the the plasma membrane; aid in locomotion and feeding

Front 94

plasmodium

Back 94

-in plasmodial slime molds, the mass of cytoplasm that contains many diploid nuclei but no cell walls or membranes

Front 95

diatom

Back 95

-members of the phylum bacillariophyta, are unicellular photosynthetic organisms with shells composed of silica
-make up a large component of the phytoplankton population in both marine and freshwater ecosystems.

Front 96

phytoplankton

Back 96

-photosynthesizing unicellular
-produce most of the oxygen used on Earth
-have no roots, stems, or leaves

Front 97

paramecium

Back 97

-uses its cilia, oral groove, gullet, and food vacuoles in the process of digestion.
-usually reproduces asexually by dividing crosswise and seaparating into two daughter cells.

Front 98

amoeba

Back 98

-have no cell walls
-form pseudopodia to move and feed
-most amoebas live in salt water.

Front 99

Chlorophyta

Back 99

-green algae
-major pigment is chlorophyll
-can be unicellular, colonial, or multicellular in organization
-most live in freshwater

Front 100

Rhizopoda

Back 100

-includes hundreds of species of amoebas and amoebalike organisms