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243 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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In scientific vernacular, a Law is __________ in that it predicts what will happen in a situation when the range of possible conditions is limited.
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Prescriptive
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Facts...
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are observations that have been confirmed many times and generally accepted
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Many of the cultural attitudes governing sexual behavior in the West today are derived from
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Mesopotamia
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Two men are credited with the theory of evolution. They are
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Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
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Support for a hypothesis from different sources of data is called
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consilience
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Two species share a common ancestor not shared with another is a statement of
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relationship
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An example of the Red Queen hypothesis is
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immune systems of humans and the flu virus
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The evolution of sex is ...
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has several explanations, none of which is complete
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Sexual selection can result in
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sexual dimorphism
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The DNA molecule is composed, among other things,
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cytosine and guanine
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Directional selection
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causes the population mean of a feature to shift
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An adaptation is an advantageous feature that
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has passed through more than one generation of selection
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In the research paper by Tiggemann et al. the authors found at least two body features that were of concern to men. These include
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baldness and height
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When evolution as defined only by “changes in gene frequency” that leaves out an important
component of the origins of biodiversity called |
speciation
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Kellogg Corn Flakes are relevant to this class because
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they were originally invented to decrease masturbation
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Meiosis promotes genetic variation through
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crossing over, random fertilization, independent assortment
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Male stalk eye flies in Hawaii have the eyes at the tips of long stalks. These stalks are the result of sexual selection by females. Females also have stalked eyes since
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female eyes have the same developmental pathways as male eyes,resulting in stalked eyes as well.
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Red pigmentation in a male bird is considered
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an honest signal of health
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The correct order of the phases of mitosis are
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prophase, anaphase, telophase
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Which male sex organ is a single, donut‐shaped duct that surrounds the upper portion of the urethra
just inferior to the bladder? |
prostate gland
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What are the two elongated erectile structures in both the penis and the clitoris that makes them rigid?
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corpus cavernosa
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What organ is intimately tied to the evolution of sperm ducts?
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kidney
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Developmentally, the scrotum of male mammals is developmentally homologous with what structure
in a female? |
labia majora
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If you examine a population of daphnia in a local lake, you expect there to be males if
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there is crowding and days are getting shorter
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Species in which males may or not may be produced are termed
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facultative parthenogens
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Some fishes have been termed sexual parasites because
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they will allow males to mate with them but reject their sperm DNA
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Genetic recombination occurs inside the cells of other organisms during reproduction of
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viruses
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While there may be controversy about its anatomy, there is behavioral evidence for
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g-spot
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What hormone causes uterine contraction during childbirth and milk letdown when a baby is
nursing? |
oxytocin
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The male sex structure where gametes are formed is called
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testis
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What structure forms the distal tip of the penis and the clitoris?
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glans
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The part of the brain activated when a man finds out his mate has cheated is associated with
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aggression and sex
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One hormone that causes feelings of romantic elation at the sight of a loved one is
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dopamine
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Which hormone is involved in long term attachment to a mate?
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vasopressin
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How many adolescents who commit to virginity pledges break them, according to Tavener’s article, “Should Sex Ed Teach About Abstinence?
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88%
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What were the main results of Rosenbaum’s study, “Patient Teenagers?”
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Virginity pledgers were more likely to get pregnant than non-pledgers
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Isogamy is the term used to describe
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Gametes of approximately the same size
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During development there is a close relationship
between |
kidney and gonads
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Polls repeatedly indicate that Americans who believe sexual orientation is either genetic or biological are much more likely to
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support gay and lesbian civilrights
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In the article, “Why Are We Gay?,” what was the conclusion regarding the determinants for
homosexuality? |
Mostly biological, but other factors also contribute
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Sperm competition is most likely to evolve when
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females are promiscious
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In sunfishes of the genus Lepomis, there are three male body types. One of these stays near a large breeding male and a female and then rushes into the nest to fertilize eggs. This “sneaker” male
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has the largest testes per body size of the body types
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One response that females have to male sperm competition is
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induced ovulation
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Masturbation is common in vertebrates. One hypothesis for its function is
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to enhance sperm viability by eliminating older sperm
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infanticide is...
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a form of post‐reproductive male‐male competition in some cases
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One study of brain scans of humans concluded that
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some aspects of homosexual men’s brains are similarto those of heterosexual women
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Female hyenas have very a very large clitoris. This is thought to be the result of
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high levels of testosterone
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One early study important for understanding homosexuality concerned
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sheep
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What is a hypothesis?
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a tentative statement based on observations or expectations from theory; Tested by experimentation or observation
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what is a theory?
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explanation of a range of observations that include tested hypotheses by multiple researchers; well-established explanation of some aspect of the natural world, as confirmed by observations and experiments
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What is a law?
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broad, universal statements; descriptive generalizations about how the world behaves; describes something about our world that is true
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What makes a hypothesis heuristic?
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if it drives new research
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when multiple hypotheses collide, base selection on:
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Degree of complexity--choose the least complicated hypothesis --> PARSIMONY
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What is corroboration?
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data that confirms a hypothesis
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What is a paradigm shift?
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period of conflict between older theory and new theory until a more explanatory theory emerges and becomes widely accepted
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what is confirmation bias?
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tendency of human brain to find explanations for phenomena and remember "hits" instead of "misses"
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What is convergence?
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acquisition of same biological trait in unrelated lineages
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What was the explanation prior to the theory of evolution?
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"great chain of being" by aristotle
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Who "pondered presence of mollusk shells on the tops of mountains, and thus questioned the stability of the current earth's environment"?
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Leonardo da Vinci
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Who "pondered the origin of species, came up with description of sexual selection"?
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Erasmus Darwin
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Who "popularized uniformitarianism (claimed that geological processes in the past were similar to those operating today)" as opposed to "catastrophism (claim that the earth and life had been through many creations and destructions, one could not extrapolate the present from the records of the past)"?
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Charles Lyell
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Who influenced Darwin with these ideas: Breeding will take place as soon as possible and as long as possible until the species reaches their limits and crash?
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Malthus
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What is the most basic definition of evolution?
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descent with modification (Darwin)
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What was Darwin's greatest contribution to the theory of evolution?
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proposed natural selection as the mechanism for change (favorable variations would tend to be preserved and unfavorable ones to be destroyed)
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Basics of natural selection: overproduction, competition, variation, differential reproduction
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• There is overproduction: many more young are born than survive to adulthood
• There is competition: resources become insufficient to support expansion of population (food, space, breeding places, etc.) • Variation and differential reproduction result: any features that can aid an individual to survive this lack of resources could potentially be passed to its descendants and give them an advantage |
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What is random about evolution?
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origin of mutation is random, but survival of mutations is NOT
ex: Richard Dawkin's The Blind Watchmaker |
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What are adaptations?
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- features that become fixed in the species due to an advantage and passed on to future generations - Can only arise if features are heritable--> genetically coded and can be passed to descendants
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what is phylogeny?
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study of evolutionary relationships among groups of organism; tree of life
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What is speciation?
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process by which gene pools are pulled apart and different species result
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What generates diversity in evolution?
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speciation
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What makes up DNA?
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- complementary strands of nucleotides: sugars and phosphate groups, with nucleobases attached to sugars) - Bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine
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What is a gene?
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section of DNA that influences one or more hereditary traits in an individual
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What is an allele?
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different versions of a specific gene
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Where is DNA located?
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most of it is in the nucleus of cell
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What does RNA code for?
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Amino acids (which in turn code for proteins)
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What is one of the main sources of genetic variation and is a hallmark of sexual reproduction?
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meiosis
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What is the type of cell division responsible for growth?
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mitosis
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What is the type of cell division responsible for creating gametes?
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meoisis
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What is the process of mitosis?
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Interphase
Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis |
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When do the chromosomes meet in the middle?
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Metaphase
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When does the cytoplasm divide?
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Cytokinesis
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When are chromosomes pulled to the opposite ends of the cell?
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Anaphase
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When do chromosomes condense?
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Prophase
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When does the mitotic spindle form?
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prophase
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When does the nuclear envelope reform?
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Telophase
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What kind of cells does mitosis occur in, and which does meiosis occur in?
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Mitosis occurs with somatic cells, and meiosis in germ cells
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Where do germ cells develop?
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Germ cells develop from "primordial germ cells" early in development and migrate to developing gonads
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What is the process of meiosis?
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Interphase
Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I & Cytokinesis Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II & Cytokinesis |
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When does crossing over occur?
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Prophase I
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At what point do haploid cells form?
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After first phase of meiosis, they are now haploid, but with two copies of each chromosome.
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What are sources of genetic diversity in meiosis?
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crossing-over, independent assortment, random fertilization
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What break the DNA molecules of adjacent non-sister chromatids and exchange chromosome segments?
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Recombinases (specialized enzymes)
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What are the regions in which crossing over takes place?
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chiasmata
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How many chiasmata are formed per tetrad?
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1-3
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What is independent assortment?
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each pair of chromosomes sorts its maternal and paternal homologues into daughter cells independently of the other pairs
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What is the # of possible combinations under independent assortment?
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2^n where n is the haploid chromosome number of the organism
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What is the number of possible combinations under independent assortment for humans?
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In humans, n = 23 so the number of possible combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes in each gamete due to independent assortment is 223 or ~8mm
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Why does oogenesis (female gamete formation) usually only produce one surviving egg cell?
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During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm and organelles are concentrated into only one of the four daughter cells—the one which will eventually become the female ovum or egg. The other three smaller cells, called polar bodies, die and are reabsorbed shortly after formation. The process of oogenesis may seem inefficient, but by donating all the cytoplasm and organelles to only one of the four gametes, the female increases the egg's chance for survival, should it become fertilized.
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Why is it possible that haploid gametes can have parts of genes from each parent?
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crossing-over, independent assortment
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What does it mean when an allele is dominant?
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• when one allele is always expressed in the presence of the other
• Dominance relationships have nothing to do with fitness--the ability of an individual to produce offspring in a particular environment • Dominant alleles do not necessarily confer high fitness • Are not necessarily more common than recessive alleles |
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What does it mean when an allele is recessive?
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when one allele is always masked in the presence of the other
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What is incomplete dominance?
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when alleles of a gene are not always clearly dominant or recessive; Heterozygotes have an intermediate phenotype
ex: flower with red and white genotype is a pink flower |
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codominance
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heterozygotes have phenotype of both alleles
ex: flower with red and white genotype is a red and white spotted flower |
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pleiotropic
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a gene that influences many traits instead of one
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epistasis
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• phenomenon in which one gene affects the action of another gene
• Ex: alleles at one gene mask or reduce the effects of alleles at a different gene • Some genotypes at a particular locus can be associated with different phenotypes |
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Where are genomic instructions for development are encoded?
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regulatory DNA
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What is the principle of independent assortment?
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- chromosomes can line up in random ways during meiosis I; division of homologous chromosomes is independent
- This means that not all maternal chromosomes will go into one cell, while all paternal chromosomes go into the other - Each haploid cell contains a mixture of genes from the organism's mother and father |
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What is linkage?
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- physical association of genes on the same chromosome, on same chromosome
- Linked genes violate principle of independent assortment |
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What can violate the principle of independent assortment?
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linked genes
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What dictates the frequency of crossing over?
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- Genes on a chromosome are arranged in a linear array, and physical distance between them dictates the frequency of crossing over
- The greater the physical distance, the greater the frequency of crossing over |
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Multiple allelism
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some genes have more than two alleles
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What is polymorphism?
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- when different combinations of alleles produce more than two distinct phenotypes
- ex: blood type in humans (A, AB, B, O) - Can result from actions of multiple alleles, incomplete dominance, and / or codominance |
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what is Sex-linkage?
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genes located on sex chromosomes
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What is Polygenic inheritance of quantitative traits?
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• many genes are involved in specifying traits that exhibit continuous variation
• Unlike alleles that determine discrete traits, each allele adds a small amount to phenotype ex: cat coat color |
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How can gender / sex be determined?
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environmental
behavioral genetic |
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How can sex be determined by environmental factors?
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external factors (temperature, behavior, population density, pH) affect the embryo and cause certain genes to switch on to produce the hormones necessary to induce sex development
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How can sex be determined by behavioral factors?
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○ Influenced by social grouping: ratio of males to females, sizes of individuals
○ Influenced by crowding and increased competition of resources |
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How can sex be determined genetically?
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- particular genes activate hormone production; sex is due to inheritance
○ Sex-determining genes may be scattered throughout genome on several chromosomes § May be some flexibility in sex determination ○ Or can be chromosomal sex determination, where genes are limited to specific sex chromosomes |
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What are autosomes?
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non-sex chromosomes
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What are some different types of sex chromosomes?
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(1) XX (female) / XY (male) --> most mammals
(2) XX (female) / X0 (male) --> some insects / worms (3) ZW (female) / ZZ (male) --> birds, snakes, insects |
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Which type of selection is used in domestication of plants and animals?
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directional selection
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What kind of selection does Darwin's finch bills demonstrate?
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directional selection
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What type of selection decreases diversity over time but increases the value of the average trait?
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stabilizing selection
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what is the type of selection does birth weight in humans?
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stabilizing
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What type of selection maintains genetic diversity and does not change the mean value of a trait?
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disruptive
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what does sexual selection predict about mate choice? which type of parents are the most selective of mates?
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those that invest the most in young
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What is female-choice sexual selection?
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○ Female choice involves male displays or other means of attracting females, with the female choosing the mate. The mate is chosen on the basis of resources expected for raising the young, such as territories with food
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What is male-male competition sexual selection?
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○ Male-male competition involves males either displaying or singing to each other to establish territories, or actual combat with the winner gaining access to the females
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What is male reproductive fitness limited by?
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by the ability to acquire mates
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What is female reproductive fitness limited by?
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by the ability to gain resources necessary to produce and rear young
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What are constraints on evolution?
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- genetic correlation: when selection on alleles for on trait causes a correlated but suboptimal change in another trait (piggybacking)
- lack of genetic variation because natural selection can only work on existing variation - all traits evolve from previously existing traits --> historical constraints (cannot evolve wheels) |
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What characteristics do females evaluate males with?
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size, bright colors, food gifts
(females choose males based on physical characteristics that signal male genetic quality, resources provided by males, or both) |
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What are the Major Histocompatibility Complex genes?
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group of genes that govern robustness of immune system
(Highly heterozygous individuals have stronger immune systems than less heterozygous individuals.) |
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Conclusion about MHC in mating choice?
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More recent studies have concluded that there may be mate choice for MCH heterozygosity, but it is only one of many factors that go into choice.
(A 1997 study of Hutterite genealogies showed that they mate assortatively, choosing individuals with different haplotypes. A 1997 study of Amazonian Amerindian tribes showed no assortative mating, regardless of marriage customs.) |
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What in the face is correlated with heterozygosity at three important MHC loci, all important in strong immune systems?
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symmetry
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Adaptionist vs. Non-adaptionist
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§ In adaptationist views, nearly any trait must have a function maintained by natural selection and must therefore be an adaptation
§ In non-adaptationist views, some traits persist in organisms either because they are genetically linked to adaptations, or are a result of common developmental programs. |
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What percentage of women regularly experience orgasm during intercourse?
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29%
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Women who masturbate experience orgasm about ?% of the time.
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95%
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Women have more orgasms with...
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Affairs
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Adaptionist theories on female orgasm?
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○ female control of fertilization (by better quality males; sperm competition) or
○ the female keeping the male around to help raise offspring (pair-bonding), or ○ increasing the likelihood of fertilization (the female remains prone and pooped out—the “anti-gravity hypothesis”) or ○ the female desiring orgasms so that she is more likely to have several mates and thus deflect male danger towards her offspring, or ○ the orgasm causes movements by the cervix to suction sperm into the uterus |
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Non-adaptionist theory on female orgasm?
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Males and females undergo same basic development from embryo -- female orgasm is an incidental byproduct of selection on male orgasm
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What do women and men prefer in each other for WHR?
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○ Women prefer 0.9 ratio on men
○ Men prefer women with 0.7-0.8 ratios |
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What did Singh find about women choosing mates?
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WHR is part of desirability but ability of high resources overrides it
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What does Swami find about mate choice?
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counteracts that BMI is a better indicator of mate choice than WHR
- Less traditional, more egalitarian societies, BMI matters more - In traditional societies combination of WHR and BMI |
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What is Ridley's definition of sex?
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recombination (meiosis) and outcrossing (mating)
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What is an example of exchange of genetic matter and does not involve reproduction?
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Conjugation (no reproduction bc no offspring)
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Types of asexual reproduction:
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- binary fission in "prokaryotes"
- mitosis and cell division in single-celled organisms - budding (hydra) or fission (anemone) - parthenogenesis |
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Theories for why sex happens:
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- DNA repair
- Tangled Bank: variation allows development of individuals that are different in each generation with the possibility of moving into new environments - Red Queen: sex conceived as response to parasites / diseases |
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Types of sexual reproduction:
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- Reassortment (viruses)
- Conjugation (protozoans) (no reproduction!) - nuclear fusion and meoisis (facultative sex) |
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In plants, when both male and female flowers occur on the same individual...
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monoecious
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In plants, when male and female flowers are on separate individuals...
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dioecious
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What are simultaneous hermpahrodites?
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both kinds of gametes are produced at the same time. Simultaneous hermaphrodites can fertilize themselves.
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What are sequential hermaphrodites?
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- producing either type of gamete, but not at the same time. The individual will play the role of male or female depending on what it’s mate is doing.
- In most cases, the direction of transformation is species specific and under social control |
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What are protogyny?
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Sequential hermaphrodites can begin life as females and become males later in life
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What are protandry?
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Those that begin life as males change into females later in life
ex: clownfish |
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What is the most common form of fertilization in aquatic habitats?
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external
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This fish species has internal fertilization but no intromittent organ in males.
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Coelacanth
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Which animals have penises?
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turtles
crocodiles echidna / platypus marsupials humans / mammals (some birds like duck / ostrich) |
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What is the average size of human penises?
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flacid (8.8 cm) rigid (12.9 cm)
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What tissue is responsible for causing an erection?
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corpus cavernosum (Nitric acid)
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In which animals is there a baculum / penis bone?
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primates (not humans), rodents, insectivores, carnivores (bears...etc).
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What part of the sperm enters the egg during fertilization?
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sperm nucleus and centriole
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what is cleavage?
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- set of rapid cell divisions (without growth)
- cleavage creates cells called blastomeres, which make up a morula - after cell division, a hollow sphere called a blastula is formed - gastrulation turns the blastula into a gastrula |
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What kind of cleavage do humans undergo?
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Radial
(flies undergo spiral) |
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What governs much of body development and segmentation?
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- evolutionarily conserved gene complexes called homeotic genes
- includes HOX genes which are involved in development of body segments |
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What do HOX genes regulate?
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Development of features of body segments
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what do transcription factors control?
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These special proteins control which genes are expressed by a particular cell --> differential gene expression
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What is an example transcription factor?
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bicoid mRNA that defines anterior strucutres --> bicoid mutation resulting in 2 butts
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What is the replacement of one structure by another?
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homeosis
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what are examples of homeotic mutations?
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flies with legs for atennas, extra eyes for atennas, bithorax (extra wings),
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What is the order that transcription factors go in?
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• Transcription factors work in a cascade, with maternal genes determining anterior and posterior axes. They induce:
○ Gap genes that define broad areas and induce: § Pair Rule genes that predict segment locations and induce: □ Segment Polarity genes that begin segmentation and define subregions □ Homeotic genes define the role of each segment |
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What do gap genes do?
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define broad areas and induce pair rule gene
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what do pair rule genes do?
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predict segment locations and induce 1) segment polarity genes, 2) homeotic genes
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what do segment polarity genes do?
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being segmentation and define subregions
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what do homeotic genes do?
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define the role of each segment
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What is the term for when there is a large difference in gamete size (chicken egg vs. chicken sperm)?
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anisogamy
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What is the term when gametes are approximately the same size?
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isogamy
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Work on swedish records showed that women who gave birth to sons lived __ months less than those who had daughters
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34
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What are the two major factors for why women have shorter lifespans if they had sons?
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1) male babies are larger/heavier
2) expose the mother to higher levels of testosterone |
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What about penises tend to be associated with monogamous reproductive strategies in primates?
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simplified penile morphology
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What does oxytocin do?
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stimulates uterine contraction, milk let-down, feelings of nurturance
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what does vassopressin do?
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social behavior and bonding when released in brain
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what does prolactin do?
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stimulate milk production
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Chemicals of sex and love
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serotonin, dopamine, testosterone, epinephrine, norepinephrine, oxytocin, vasopressin
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What functions to regulate mood, sleep, memory, need for food, cognition?
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serotonin
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Lowered levels of ________ are correlated with obsessive-compulsive behavior such as focus on a loved one
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serotonin
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What is produced by the brain, especially in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) where it is involved in the reward circuitry of the brain?
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dopamine
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What neurotransmitter is related to drug addiction?
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dopamine
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What neurotransmitter is related to production of testosterone?
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dopamine
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What chemical increases sex drive in females and males?
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testosterone
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What produces increased energy, alertness, loss of sleep, loss of appetite?
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norepinephrine
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What is involved in milk production, orgasm, pair bonding and birth?
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oxytocin
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What is associated with pair bonding and attachment?
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vasopressin
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Which part of the brain causes feelings of romantic love?
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VTA
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What happens to dopamine and serotonin levels when people are in love?
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dopamine levels are raised while serotonin levels decrease
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What is a sexually dimorphic area of the brain?
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hypothalamus and thalamus
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What are the hormones of attachment love?
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oxytocin, vassopressin
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What is the human sexual response cycle?
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1) Excitement
2) Plateau 3) Orgasm 4) Resolution |
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What happens to the male brain during orgasm?
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extraordinary activity in VTA (similar to heroin), serotonin levels soar, amygdala shows lower activity (decreased vigilance)
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what happens to the female brain during orgasm?
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much of the brain is muted, dip in excitation in prefrontal cortex, limbic system is activated
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What are deviations of the 1:1 sex ratio caused by?
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- meiotic drive: where some alleles are over-represented in the gametes which are formed during meiosis.
- Deviations from 1:1 can occur due to unequal transmission of X and Y chromosomes from individuals of the heterogametic sex, causing one sex to be more common (sex chromosome meiotic drive) - ex: mites |
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when there are differences in gamete size, it is usually because of...
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sexual dimorphism, resulting from sexual selection
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What is an example of guaranteed monogamy?
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- flatworm parasite that fuses with partner for life
- anglerfish |
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How many teens who pledge viriginity fail to keep the pledge?
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88%
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How many teens who pledge virginity are less likely to use condoms at first intercourse?
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1/3
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How much does the U.S. government spend yearly on abstinence-promotion programs?
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$200mm
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Five years after the pledge, how many denied taking the pledge?
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82%
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What was the result of the study on virginity pledges?
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- virginity pledges may not affect sexual behavior but may decrease the likelihood of taking precautions during sex
- virginity pledgers were less likely to become sexually active 1-5 years after the pledge, equally likely to have STDs, and less likely to use contraception than nonpledgers |
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Which parts of the penis is repsonsible for rigidity?
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corpus cavernosa, corpus spongiosum, urethra
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What percentage of the population is gay?
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3.5-8%
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What did people use to judge if other people were homosexual?
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atypical body shape (women) and motion (men and women)
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How many people in US are currently infected with STIs?
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1 in 6
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48% of them are among people aged...
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15-24
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What are the 4 H's in viral STIs?
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herpes, hep B, HIV, HPV
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Parasites that are STIs
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pubic lice, trichomoniasis
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What is the most curable STI?
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trichomoniasis
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Bacterial STIs
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bacterial vaginosis (BV), chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphillis
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What is the most frequently reported bacterial STI and second most frequent STI in the US?
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chlamydia
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What STI is called the clap?
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gonorrhea
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Where does Pelvic Inflammatory Disease come from?
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results from STIs like Chlamydia and Gonorrhea
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What is the most common STI?
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HPV
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What percentage people get HPV sometime in their life?
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50%
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What can HPV cause?
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gential warts, cervical / oral / other cancers, warts in throat
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Where is the highest occurence of HPV among age group?
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20-24
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Which STI requires women to have a c-section if they have it?
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Herpes (infection can be fatal for babies)
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How infection is Hep B?
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50-100x more infectious than HIV
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How many condom users put them on inside-out?
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1/3
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How many condom users don't hold the tip for condoms?
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40-45%
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How much more likely are women to get genital warts / chlamydia?
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2x
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How much more likely are women to get genital herpes?
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3x
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Why are women more suscepitible to HPV / cervial dysplasia at 18-25 than any other age?
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changing cervical cells
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What is most pornography about?
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asymmetrical relationships and power
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Where are porn subscriptions highest and lowest?
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Highest in conservative states (Utah) and lower in more liberal states
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What are downsides to porn?
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- can interfere with relationships and cause a decline in sexual desire and activity
- can also interfere with working memory |
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What does the ovarian cycle do?
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production and release of ova (eggs)
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What does the uterine cycle do?
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Preparation of uterus for implantation by a fertilized egg
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Hormones involved in the Ovarian cycle?
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- gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
- follicle stimulating hormon (FSH) - lutenizing hormone (LH) |
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Hormones involved in the Uterine cycle?
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- estrogen
- progesterone |
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What is the chemical used in pregnancy tests and also responsible for nausea in early pregnancy?
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progesterone
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What inhibits the smooth muscle in the uterus?
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progesterone
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what increase blood flow to uterus?
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estrogen
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which hormones stop LH and FSH, and thus ovulation?
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estrogen and progesterone
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Which chemical is causing "feminization" in the environment that increases the amount of testosterone being converted to estrogen?
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atrazine (endocrine disrupting chemical)
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