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147 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Digestion
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The integration of nutrients into the organism
Organic molecules - carbs, fats, proteins, and vitamins Inorganic molecules - minerals 1. Ingestion 2. Digestion - breakdown of food into smaller molecules 3. Absorption 4. Excrete the remains |
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Ingestion
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Occurs in mouth, teeth break down food
Salivary Glands 1. Lubricate food for further travel 2. Dissolve food particles for tasting 3. Kill bacteria 4. Amylase facilitated breakdown of polysaccharides The food then moves to the esophagus |
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Stomach
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Storage and digestion via gastric juices
Gastric Juices - HCl kills microbes and destabilizes polar molecules for further digestion - Pepsin breaks downpeptide bonds using water, turning proteins into polypeptide fragments The stomach is lined with mucous to act as defense from HCl and pepsin doesn't become active until it is exposed to HCl |
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Bird Stomach
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Crop
- sac like structure found right after the esophagus - water soften the food collected - can store and regurgitate food for young Seperated into the proventriculus and the gizzard Proventriculus - secretes acids and enzymes Gizzard - sac that contains tiny pebbles that grind and mechanically breakdown food, replaces teeth |
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Stomach in Ruminants
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Reticulum - contains microbes to breakdown cellulose
Rumen - contains microbes to breakdown cellulose Omasum - water and salt absorption Abomasum - true stomach |
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Digestion in Small Intestine
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Main site of digestion and absorption
Pancreas - proteases - breakdown of proteins - pancreatic amylase - polysaccharides into disaccharides - lipases - breaks down fat - bicarbonate - neutralize gastric juices Intestinal Glands - produces maltose and proteases to digest proteins Liver - produces bile which help breakdown fat Gallbladder - storage of bile which allows for secretion during meals |
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Absorption in Small Intestine
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Absorbed through epithelial cells
Extremely long and villi are key for absorption (inside the villi and lacteal) Microvilli on villi further increase surface area It is also really long so makes more surface area |
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Carbohydrates
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Digested by
- polysaccharides are digested by amylase in mouth and small intestine - disaccharides are digested by specific enzymes in the small intestine Absorbed - into epithelial - monomer specific channels - into blood stream - facilitated diffusion |
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Fats
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Digested by
- lipases - breakdown triglycerides into FFA and monoglyceride - bile - reduces size of fat droplets Absorbed by - into epithelial - must have concentration gradient - into lacteal - facilitated diffusion |
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Lacteal
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the lymphatic vessels of the small intestine that aid in fat absorption
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Excretion and Ion Transport
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All organisms are constantly trying to maintain water and salt balance
Obligatory salt and water exchanges 1. Breathing - releases water vapour 2. Food Intake - introduces salts and water 3. Exertion and energy consumption - produce water/releases water 4. Excretion - loss of salt and water through feces and urine |
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Respiration in Fish
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Fresh water fish
- hyperosmatic - do not have to drink water - gills activity transport Na and Cl back into fish - urine consists of lots of water Salt water fish - the fish drink lots of water - excrete out Na and Cl through gills - urine is extremely concentrated |
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Nitrogenous Waste
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Breakdown of nucleic acids and proteins can cause toxic things to build up and they must be excreted
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Fish and Nitrogenous Waste
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Ammonia and ammonium
Downside - most toxic - must excrete immediately - takes lots of water Upside - no energy required |
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Mammals and Nitrogenous Waste
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Produces Urea
Downside - requires a fair amount of energy Upside - urea is much less toxic - less water is required |
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Birds/insects/most reptiles and Nitrogenous Waste
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Uric Acid
Downside - most energy taxing Upside - very little water need - very nontoxic |
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The Kidney
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Filtration
- removes water and small solutes from blood stream - leave larger content, blood cells and protein Reabsorption - regain useful materials and return it to the blood Secretion - addition of other solutes to the filtrate - fine tuning of excretion The Nephron - renal corpuscle, long tubule, and collecting ducts Renal Corpuscle - glomerulus - series of tubes supplied with blood - the bowman's capsule - a liquid killed container that encases the glomerulus A Long Tubule - proximal tubule - loop of henle - distal tubule Collecting Duct - passes waste onto the rest of the excretory system via the renal pelvis |
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Fat Absorption
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Small intestine signals the gall bladder which causes it to release bile.
The bile creates micelles |
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Trypsin vs. Pancreas
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Made by trypsinogen which does not break down proteins and only becomes trypsin when it reaches the small intestine because of the alkaline environment
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Reason for larger appendix/cemum
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Eating lots of cellulose
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Insects
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No pepsin only trypsin, have a thing similar to the crop in birds
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Regulation of Digestion
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Nervous system
- control of muscular and glandular activity by local nerves in alimentary canal Hormonal regulation - Gastrin (makes H+ and Cl-, and pepsinogen) |
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Osmoconformers
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Isotonic to the environment, can only live in a very stable environment
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Osmoregulators
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Actively balance water and salt
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Why do birds do the Uric Acid
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Because they have eggs which are a closed system so they cannot have any toxin in their eggs
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Cartilaginous Fish
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Sharks and Rays keep a high concentration of Urea and TMAO which makes them isotonic to the environment so they regulate like a fresh water fish
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Osmoregulation in Terrestrial Vertebrates
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Through excretion
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Nervous System Function
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Receive external and internal signals
Transmit external and internal signals Integrate/interpret all the received signals Coordinate/command an action/response to those signals |
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Sensory Function
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Carried out by sensory receptors which send the sensory info to the CNS through the sensory neurons
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Neuron
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Dendrites - receivers
Cell Body Nucleus Axon Myelin Sheath Axon Terminals Schwann's cells - what makes the myelin |
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Types of Neurons
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Sensory Neuron - normal looking
Motor Neuron - large cell body smaller axon Interneuron - small cell body, large axon and dendrites |
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Glial cells
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Microglia - defense and scavenging in the NS
Astrocytes - feed neurons, support them, clean up their extracellular environment Oligdendrocytes - myelin sheath everywhere but in the CNS is called Schwann Cells |
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Other Types of Nervous System
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Cnidarians - nerve net (simplest)
Echinoderms - ring around mouth and branches to legs Planaria - ganglion in head Annelids - more neurons, ventral nerve cord with ganglia in each segment Molluscs - brain with subdivisions Flies - central brain with subdivisions with specialized functions |
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Membrane Potential
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There are large negative molecules on the inside of the membrane which make it more negative than the Na+ ions outside of the membrane. K+ ions can diffuse across membrane but want to be with the large negative molecules.
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Action Potential
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Na+ channels are voltage sensitive, which is what makes the wave effect. Channels open inside becomes more positive triggers more to open and it continues on, K+ channels open now and K+ go outside to balance and the Na+ gets pumped back across.
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Synapses
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Connections between neurons, transmitting cell is presynaptic cell and the receiving is the postsynaptic cell. The gap is called the synaptic cleft.
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Post Synaptic Receptors
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Ionotropic - ligand binds, gate open ions flood in
Metabotropic - g- protein coupled receptors initiate changes in postsynaptic cell |
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The Transporting of Signals
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1. Action potential opens Ca channels which causes Ca to rush into the cytosol
2. Intracellular Ca binds to vesicles and releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis 3. Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across synaptic cleft and bind to receptors in the postsynaptic membrane 4. Response happens |
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Neuronal Integration
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Excitatory synapse causes a slight depolarization of the membrane and is called excitatory postsynaptic potential or EPSP
Inhibitory causes a hyper-polarization of the membrane and is called inhibitory post synaptic potential or IPSP |
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Summations
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Temporal - close in time
Spatial - close in distance from one another |
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Myasthenia Gravis
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Reduces number of functional acetylcholine receptors
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Multiple sclerosis
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Ruins myelin
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Endocrine System
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Hormone system
Endocrine/neuroendocrine glands secrete hormones/neurohormones |
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Local Regulators
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Interleukins and histamine
Survival growth factors Nitric Oxide Prostaglandins |
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Hormones
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Amino acid - dopamine and melatonin
Peptide hormones - insulin and ADH Steroid - cholesterol and sex hormones Fatty acid - juvenile hormone |
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Signal Transduction Pathway
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1. Receptor Activation
2. Signal Transduction 3. Cellular Response |
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Secondary Messengers
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They amplify the signal
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Regulation of Calcium
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If calcium is too low parathyroid releases parathyroid hormone which causes calcium to be retrieved from bones, more calcium to be taken up in the intestines, and increase reabsorption in the kidneys.
If calcium is too high then Thyroid releases calcitonin and the opposite happens. |
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Regulation of Sodium
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Too much stimulates posterior pituitary to secrete ADH which causes less water to be in the urine. Increased Na stimulates the heart to make more atrial natriuretic peptide which causes more Na to be in urine. To much Na inhibits aldosterone production in the adrenal glands which makes more Na in the urine
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Hormones as a insecticide
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Juvenile hormone in caterpillars doesn't let them become butterflies and reproduce so is a way to kill them
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Exoskeletal and Endoskeletal
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Exo - skeleton on outside
Endo - skeleton on inside |
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Muscle Conditioning
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Atrophy - decrease in number of myofibril per fibre
Strength Training - increase myofibril per fibre Endurance Training - increases blood vessels and mitochondria in fibres |
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Actin
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Thin filament
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Myosin
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A motor protein
An ATPase that moves along actin filaments Thick filaments |
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Muscle Types
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Smooth, cardiac and skeletal
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Striated Muscle
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Striation are overlap of thin and thick filaments
Actin in anchored to the z-line Sacroplasmic reticulum has lots of calcium |
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Open Circulatory System
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No distinction between blood and interstitial fluids. One or more heart(s) pump blood into interconnected system of sinuses.
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Closed Circulatory System
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Blood is confined to vessels and is separated from tissue. Blood may have more than one circuit.
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Lymphatic System
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Bring fluids back into blood from intersistial spaces
Aid in the detection of infections Absorption of lipids from the digestive tract |
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Double Circulation (Bird and Mammalian)
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Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are separated in systemic and pulmonary
Accomplished by 2 atria and 2 ventricles Allows for 2 different pressures in the 2 systems |
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Blood
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Noncellular fractions (50-60%)
- plasma: 90 percent water, blood proteins and ions - serum: plasma without clotting proteins Cellular Fractions (40-50%) - erythrocytes: red blood cells transport oxygen - leukocytes: white blood cells - platelets: blood vessel repair (clotting) |
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Red Blood Cells
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Hemoglobin is the protein that oxygen binds to
Lack mitochondria and generate all ATP anaerobically Anemia - reduced number of red blood cells Hyperemia - too many red blood cells increases blood pressure |
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Blood Clotting
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Platelets encounter a cut and collegen is hanging down and they get caught on it and become activated and change shape so that they stick together.
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Blood Pressure
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Too much pressure blood vessels stretch and fluids can leak
Too little pressure and blood cells cannot squeeze through capillary beds |
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Gas Exchange
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Air is 21 percent oxygen, 78 percent nitrogen, and 1 percent carbon dioxide
Differences in pressure |
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Bronchioles and Aveoli
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Bronchioles - surrounded by circular muscle to dilate or constrict passage
Aveoli - 1 cell thick - gases diffuses across |
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Immune response
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The ability to recognize foreign or dangerous macromolecules and eliminate them
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Lymphocyte
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T-cells
- cytotoxic t-cells bind to cells with foreign antigens and kill them - helper t-cells bind cells and secret cytokines B-cells - produce antibodies Antigen-Presenting Cells - macrophages, dendritic cells, and B-cells eat the invaders |
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Antigen and Antibodies
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Antigen - specifically recognized as foreign or dangerous by cells of the immune system
Antibodies - attach to antigen and signal that it is dangerous and should be eliminated |
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Innate (non-specific) immunity
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Physical barriers - first line of defense against pathogens
Soluble factors - cytokines - regulate interactions between cells, and complement - proteins that enhance inflammatory response Phagocytosis - destroys bacteria (killing machine) Inflammation - increases blood flow to the area |
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Adaptive (specific) immunity
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Antibody-mediated immunity (humoral response)
Cell-mediated immunity (cellular response) Slower than innate immunity |
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Antibody-Mediated Immunity
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B-cells have antibodies on surface which will match specific antigens.
B-cells encounter pathogen with antigen that matches they wait for signal from Helper T-cell Then divide a lot and become plasma and memory Plasma make tons of antibodies which go around the body and stick to the pathogens which are then destroyed by the macrophage |
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Cell-mediated immunity
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Helper T-cells see antigen being displayed by macrophage at the same time so does the cytotoxic t cell
Interleukin I and interleukin II happen and the helper t cell tell cytotoxic t cells to divide a bunch and become effector and memory the effect then go kill any cell that displays the foreign antibody |
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Immunological Memory Responses
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Primary Immune Response - first exposure
Secondary Immune Response - some T and B-cells remember infection and the response is faster and better Active Immunity - develops as a result of exposure to antigens Passive Immunity - a temporary condition that develops when an individual receives antibodies from another |
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Graft Rejection
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Immune system will sometimes kill the transplanted thing
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Autoimmune Disease
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Immune system attacks own body
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HIV Viruses
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Occurs by transfer of blood or other bodily fluids
1. Virus attaches to the host cell at the CCR5 receptor 2. Viral envelope fuses with the cell membrane allowing the virus RNA and enzymes to enter the cell 3. Viral RNA is reverse-transcribed then splice into the host DNA 4. DNA is used as template to make mRNA which makes viral proteins |
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Insect Immunity
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Non-specific
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Plant Defenses
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Both general and specific
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Evolution
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the accumulation over time of inherited changes in a population leading to a species which are related
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Darwinian Fitness
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An individual's ability to survive and to reproduce
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Adaptation
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An evolved feature that enhances the organisms fitness
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Population
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A group of organisms of a single species living in the same geographical area
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Species
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A group of organisms with common ancestry and physical structures that are able to breed and have fertile offspring
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Community
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Group of populations composed of organisms with common ancestry, sharing similar structures, functions and behaviours who are freely able to mate in nature.
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Ecosystem
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An interactive system composed of one or more communities and their abiotic environment
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Biosphere
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All of Earth's ecosystems
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Natural Selection
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The process by which an organism gets better adapted to the environment and has a better chance of leaving offspring.
Acts on the phenotypes within a generation |
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Darwin
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Aboard the Beagle in 1831 and found that organisms living in different environments are different and evolve into two different species.
He says that organisms with higher fitness will live to pass on those genes and they will become more prominent in the gene pool. Individuals cannot evolve. |
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Other mechanisms of evolution
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Sexual selection
Drift Random mutations Gene flow |
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Four Observations for Natural Selection
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Variation in phenotypes exists among individuals
High reproduction potential means population increase geometrically. Individuals compete for limited resources. "Fit" offspring with characteristics matching the current environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. |
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Evidence for Evolution
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Fossil Records
Comparative anatomy Biogeography Comparative embryology |
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Fossil Records
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Show a progression from early to the present
Can be dated Succession patterns from which we can see how generations changed |
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Comparative anatomy
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Homologous features - derived from the same structure in the common ancestor (forelimbs of whales and cats)
Developmental homology - Species differ as adults but have similar embryos Analogous features - similar functions but resulted from convergent evolution of unrelated species (wings) Convergent evolution - doing things the same way with similar structure despite genetic and geographic segregation Vestigial structures - remnant structures |
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Proximate vs ultimate explanations
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Proximate - observation is immediate
Ultimate - evolutionary minded observation |
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Genetic Variation
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The differences in multiallelic loci in a population
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Sexual Reproduction (variation)
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Creates variation because of three main factors
1. Random mating 2. Random segregation of parental chromosomes in meiosis 3. The crossing over of homologue chromatids |
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Balanced polymorphism
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The active maintenance of variation in a population
Diploidy - protects variation in the form of recessive, incompletely dominant or co-dominant alleles Heterzygote advantage -having two alleles is better because it protects you from more stuff Patchy environments - the environment makes them have variation or they will die Frequency-dependent selection - if an allele becomes too present in a population other populations will adapt around that allele leading to the species with that allele to have to change it up |
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Phenotypic Plasticity
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One genotype produces a variety of phenotypes in different environments
There are a variety of phenotypic possibilities for a genotype under different environmental conditions Polygenic or quantitative traits - multiple loci + environmental effects |
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Hardy-Weinberg
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The genetic structure of a population remains constant generation after generation unless acted upon by agents other than sexual recombination.
If the population deviates then it is evolving |
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Non-Random Mating
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When organisms do not have equal chances of mating based on their genotype (choosing the best ones)
Assortative mating - short humans prefer short humans, results in a less heterzygous population Inbreeding depression - lowering of fitness of inbred individuals because heterzygosity becomes less common |
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Genetic Drift
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More common in small populations because there are less times to make sure that everything get involved in the next generation
Bottleneck effect - where the population gets reduced Founder effect - small population migrates away from the rest of species |
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Gene Flow
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The sudden arrival or departure of a significant number of individuals that has a great impact on the genes of the population
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Different types of natural selection
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Stabilizing - a central phenotype is selected over extremes
Directional - phenotypes in a specific direction are selected Disruptive - selection favours a limited number of discrete phenotypes |
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Sexual Selection
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When things are evolved for the purpose of gaining an advantage at passing on their genes (peacock)
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Pre-zygotic isolating mechanisms
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Some populations have specific mating rituals in place which will limit the amount of interbreeding that can occur.
Gametic isolation - incompatible sperm and egg |
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Post-zygotic isolating mechanisms
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Reduced hybrid viability
Reduced hybrid fertility (mules) |
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Speciation
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The process of evolution of two or more distinct species from a single ancestor.
Divided in allopatric and sympatric |
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Allopatric Speciation
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The consequence of geographical isolation
Dispersal - individuals move to a new location Vicariance - the habitat is physically split |
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Sympatric Speciation
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Consequence of reproductive isolation inside the population range
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Polyploidy
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Mutation results in the doubling of chromosome number
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Gradualism
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Product of microevolution and adaptive divergence along very long periods of time
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Punctuated equilibrium
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Long periods where no evolution occurs then a short period where evolution occurs rapidly, occurs because of a new environment
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Systematics
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Study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships
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Classification
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Grouping of organisms by their similarities or evolutionary relationships
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Taxonomy
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The science of classification
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8 Major Taxonomic Levels
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Domain
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species |
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Taxa
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Monophyletic taxon - includes an ancestor and all of its descendants (mammals)
Paraphyletic taxa - include common ancestor but not all of its descendants (reptiles without birds) Polyphyletic taxa - artificial groups of distantly related taxa (birds and mammals) |
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Confounding Factors (when building a phylogeny)
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Convergent evolution - two species have the same trait which has evolved independently in each case
Secondary loss - an organism does not have a characteristic its ancestor had |
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Schools of Data Analysis
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Evolutionary systematics - uses evolutionary branching but gives a lot of importance to shared derived characters
Phenetic or numerical taxonomy - group organisms based on the number of similarities they show, regardless where they are homologies or analogous Phylogentic systematic or cladisitc - analysis based entirely on true homologies |
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Molecular Systematics
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Sequences of proteins and DNA can be used to find if species are related
Molecular clock - Can find out how long ago organisms divided into two separate species |
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Four categories of Ecology
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Organismal ecology - studies how the organisms cope with the environment
Population ecology - studies the relationship between the environment and the size/composition of populations Community ecology - studies how interaction between population affects the community structure and organization Ecosystem ecology - studies how interaction between communities and their abiotic environmental factors affect each other. Landscapes - bunch of ecosystems. Biomes - a group of ecosystems that occupy a large geographical area. Biosphere - the sum of all the ecosystems on earth |
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Important variable in a population
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Size - number of individuals
Density - number of individuals/area Dispersion - pattern of spacing among individuals |
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Patterns of Dispersion
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Clumped - resources are limited to geographic patches
Even - resources evenly distributed and organisms compete for space and resources Random - interaction of many factors, complicated factors influence distribution |
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Survivorship curves
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Type 1 - very high survival at young ages followed by a steep decline
Type 2 - fairly constant Type 3 - very high death rate at young age and then high survival rate |
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Semelparity vs Iteroparity
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Semelparity - reproduce once a year
Iteroparity - reproduce more than once a year (high death rates at birth then high survival rates after) |
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K and r strategists
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K - die quick, sex quick, sex young, small
r - live long, mature late, large, not many offspring/cycle |
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Niches
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Ecological niche - the sum of biotic and abiotic resources that support a population in its environment
Fundamental niche - the set of resources a population is theoretically capable of using under ideal conditions Realized (habitat) niche - the presence of other organisms that will compete for these resources |
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Competition
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Results from increased density of populations
Interference - actually fighting over resources Exploitative - both exploit the same resource Competitive exclusion principle - if two species have similar fundamental niches that cannot co-exist in same environment |
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Predation/Parasitism
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One organism exploits another by killing it or impeding its reproduction or severely injuring it or compromising its reproduction.
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Mimickry
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Batesian mimickry - harmless prey pretends to be dangerous
Mullerian mimickry - when several dangerous species adopt a similar way of displaying it |
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Comensalism
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One organism benefits from the other without significantly affecting it
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Mutualism
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Both organisms benefit from interacting with one another
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Climax community
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the relatively stable endpoint of succession
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Ecological Succession
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The change in a species after a disturbance.
Primary - the disturbance killed basically everything and the entire environment starts again from basically nothing Secondary - the disturbance didn't destroy everything, keystones did not get eradicated |
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Keystone Species
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A species that has a disproportionally large impact on the structure of the community
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Ecosystem
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consists of communities of organisms that live in an area and their physical and chemical environments
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Different "trophs"
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Autotroph - self nourishing
Heterotroph - other nourishing Phototrophs - use light as their energy source Chemotrophs - obtain energy from organic or inorganic molecules |
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Trophic Structures
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Primary producer --> primary consumer --> secondary consumer ....
Very little energy gets transfered per level |
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Carbon Cycle
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Carbon dioxide is converted into carbs during photosynthesis and it later converted back into carbon dioxide when we breath it back out and by burning fossil fuels
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Cultural Eutrophication
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Human introduce high amounts of limiting nutrients to crops to stimulate growth sometimes it leaks into ecosystems and creates explosive growth of certain thing like algae
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Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
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Bioaccumulation - when things cannot be broken down the tend to accumulate
Biomagnification - as we go up the tropic scale magnification occurs (hawks and pesticides) |
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Extinction
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Leading causes for the increase in extinction rate with humans are habitat reduction, habitat fragmentation, biotic pollution, overexploitation and indirect killing
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Conservation Biology
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In situ conservation - parks/reserves
Ex situ conservation - human controlled settings (zoo) |
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Ecological Functions
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Functions of an organism that positively or negatively regulate the abundance of limiting factors for others (fixing inorganic compounds, controlling predators)
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Endangered Species Act
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1973
Makes it illegal to trade products made from said species |
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Anemia
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Hemolytic anemia - fragile cells
Sickle cell anemia - misshapen cells Iron deficiency - for the hemoglobin Malaria - destroys red blood cells Aplastic anemia - bone marrow destroyed Pernicious anemia - folic acid deficiency (pregnant women) |
