Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
119 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Asexual Reproduction |
One parent gives to offspring that are IDENTICAL to the parent |
|
Who uses Asexual Reproduction?
|
Prokaryote
single celled eukaryotes (yeast, euglenas) single celled protists multicellular (star fish plants) |
|
What is the consequence of asexual reproduction?
|
All offspring are genetic equals (not much variation)
|
|
Sexual Reproduction
|
Two parents, offspring are different from each other and parents
|
|
The two phases of eukaryotic cell cycle
|
Interphase
Mitosis |
|
What are the 3 subphases of interphase?
|
1) G1
2) S 3) G2 |
|
G1 (Gap 1)
3 things |
1) before dna synthesis
2) increase in cell organelles 3) general growth |
|
S (Synthesis) |
1) DNA replication occurs
2) Chromosomes replicate and remain joined to their replicated partner (sister chromatids) 3) More cell growth |
|
G2 (Gap 2) |
1) After DNA synthesis |
|
Mitosis (M) 4 subphases |
1) prophase
2) metaphase 3) anaphase 4) telephase |
|
90 percent of the cells time is in what phase?
|
Interphase
|
|
Interphase prcedes what two processes?
|
mitosis and meiosis
|
|
Prophase
4 things |
1) DNA condenses (coils) becomes visiible in light microscope
2) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear 3) spindle- begins to form (microtubules) --attaches to kinetochore, centrosome 4) sister chromatids (replicated chromosomes) move towards the equator of cell |
|
This is what one end of a spindle joins to, its located at the centromere of each chromatid
|
kinetochore
|
|
The other end of a spindle joins to this microtubule organizing center?
|
centrosome
|
|
Metaphase "midway"
3 things |
1) Sister chromatids are at metaphase plate (equator)
2) Spindle is completed 3) nuclear envelope is completely gone |
|
If spindle fibers at the equator are not attached to chromatids, what are they attached to?
|
Other fibers originating at the opposite pole
|
|
Anaphase
3 things |
1) sister chromatids seperate and become chromosomes and go to opposite poles
2) spindles shorten (attached to chromosomes) 3) spindles lengthen (attached to other fibers) causing the cell to elongate |
|
When does telophase (cytoskinesis) begin?
|
once all chromosomes are at spindle poles
|
|
Telophase/cytokinesis |
1) DNA- uncoil
2) Nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear 3) spindle disappears 4) cytokinesis cell divides into two |
|
Cytokinesis (cell divides into two) in animals |
"cleavage"
ring of microfilaments pinch cell in middle, and cytoplasm divides into two cells |
|
Cytokinesis (cell divides into two) in plants |
"Cell plate formation"
Fusion of vesicles filled with cell wall materials at the equator forms two cells |
|
Two types of proteins that are "doers" of the cell cycle
|
1) kinases
2) growth factors |
|
Kinases
|
enzymes that add phosphates to other proteins
|
|
Growth factors
|
proteins that activate various genes telling the cell to grow and divide |
|
Two classes of "checkpoint" gene products (proteins) that regulate mitosis?
|
1) proto-oncogenes
2) tumor suppressors |
|
Which checkpoint class is like the gas in a car?
|
proto-oncogenes
|
|
Which checkpoint class is like the brakes in the car?
|
tumor suppressors
|
|
3 major characteristics of all malignant neoplasms (cancers)
|
1) grow and divide abnormally
2) cytoplasm and plasma membrane become altered, cytoskeleton shrinks 3) weakened capacity to adhere |
|
What kind of impact does cancer have on the developed world in terms of the cause of death?
|
causes 15-20 percent of all death
|
|
Why does a drug like taxol work to kill cancer cells?
|
It keeps microtubules from diassembling and hampers mitosis
|
|
How many new cases of breast cancer are diagnosed in the U.S. each year?
|
200,000
|
|
What kind of proteins are BRCA-1 and BRCA-2?
|
Tumor suppressor
|
|
Normall, BRCA proteins bind to receptors that then do what?
|
Regulate the transcription of growth factor genes
|
|
How is this process altered when there is a mutant BRCA protein? |
Growth factors are overproduced because BRCA cannot bind to the receptors. Cell division goes out of control, and tissue growth becomes disorganized which leads to cancer
|
|
According to may sources including the American Society of Breast Surgeons, the risk of getting breast cancer if a woman inherits a mutant BRCA gene is what? |
80 percent
|
|
What is the estimated risk of getting breast cancer for the average woman?
|
12 percent
|
|
Gamete
|
a sex cell(sperm or egg)
meiosis of diploid cell |
|
Somatic cell
|
Any cell that is not a gamete
It is mitosis of a diploid cell |
|
Homologous chromosomes
|
two chromosomes that are nearly identical (one from mom one from dad), same location, different "versions"
|
|
Autosomes
|
22 autosomes means 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes
|
|
Sex chromosomes
|
xx-female
xy-male |
|
Which pair is the sex dermining pair in chromosomes?
|
23rd pair
|
|
Diploid cells
|
two sets of chromosomes (2n)
|
|
Haploid cells
|
A single set of chromosomes
|
|
Meisos: chromosomes number is reduced by?
|
one diploid cell gives rise to 4 haploid cells
|
|
What cells use Meiosis?
|
specialized diploid reproductive cells in testes and ovaries
|
|
What is the purpose of Meiosis (2)?
|
1) Keep the chromosomes # from doubling each generation
2) Produce variation "shuffle the alleles |
|
Meiosis stages
|
1) interphase (GI,2,G2)
2) Prophase 1 3) Metaphase 1 4) Anaphase 1 5) Telophase 1 and cytokinesis 6) prophase II - Telephase II makes 4 haploid cells |
|
Is interphase the same in mitosis and meiosis? |
yes
|
|
What is different in prophase I than prophase of mitosis?
|
1) chromatids align as tetrads
4 chromatids= replicated homologs 2) synapsis = crossing over occurs 3) hybrid chromosomes = result of crossing over |
|
What is different in metaphase I than metaphase of mitosis?
|
1) tetrads line up at metaphase plate
2) tetrads are attached to spindle fibers |
|
Anaphase I
|
homologs separate from each other
|
|
Telophase I and cytokinesis
|
1) spindle disappears
2) nuclear envelopes and nucleoli- reappear (some species) 3) DNA- may uncoil (some species) 4) Cytokinesis results in 2 cells (sister chromatids still joined) |
|
Prophase II-Telophase II
|
Same of mitosis, sister chromatid separate and produce four cells
|
|
Is there interphase between meiosis I and meisos II?
|
NO
|
|
What separates in meiosis one?
|
homologs seperate (2 cells form)
|
|
What separates in meiosis two?
|
sister chromatids seperate (4 cells form) HAPLOID
|
|
Independent Orientation |
Orientation of homologs at metaphase I (Meiosis 1) plate
|
|
According to Independent Orientation how many total number combinations in a diploid cell? formula?
|
2 raised to n (number of pairs of chromosomes-combindations)
|
|
How many total combinations would there be in humans? According to indepedent orientation?
|
2 raised to 23
8 million |
|
Random fertilization
|
Fusion of the haploid nuclei of two gametes. This is where chromosome number is restored.
|
|
Formula for random fertilization
|
(2^n) (2^n)
|
|
According to random fertilization how many combination's in a human? |
64 trillion combinations |
|
What leads to genetic variability (meiosis)?
|
1) indepedent orientation
2) random fertilization 3) crossing over during synapsis of PROPHASE 1- random occurs approximately 1 to 2 times per homolog pair |
|
Principle of segregation
Gregor Mendel |
Diploid cells have pairs of genes on pairs of homologous chromosomes.
The two genes of each pair are segregated-seperated from each other during meiosis so they end up in different gametes |
|
Genes |
unit of information about specific traits
ex: pea color |
|
Humans have about how many genes spread out among their 23 chromosomes?
|
22,000 genes
|
|
How many copies of every gene are in each somatic cell?
|
2 copies
|
|
Alleles
|
alternate versions of a gene
|
|
Example of allele?
|
yellow or green
|
|
Pure breeding or homozygote
|
two identical alleles for a trait
ex: AA, aa |
|
Hybrid or heterozygote
|
two different alleles
|
|
Dominant allele
|
Allele that is expressed in a heterozygote
Aa= yellow |
|
Recessive allele
|
Allele that is masked in a heterozygote
|
|
Genotype
|
allelic composition of a gene
Aa, AA, aa |
|
Phenotype
|
expression of a trait
yellow or green |
|
Tester
|
homozygous recessive for all genes being examined
|
|
Homozygote x Homozygote
genotypes of offspring? phenotypes of offsprint? |
genotypes: all the same
phenotypes: all the same |
|
Monohybrid x Monohybrid
genotypic ratio? phenotypic ratio? |
genotypic ratio: 1:2:1
phenotypic ratio: 3:1 |
|
Monohybrid x tester
genotypic ratio: phenotypic ratio: |
genotypic ratio: 1:1
phenotypic ratio: 1:1 |
|
Mendels principle of independent assortment
|
As meiosis ends, genes on pairs of homologous chromosomes have been sorted out for distribution into one gamete or another, independently of gene pairs of other chromosomes.
|
|
Dihybrid x dihybrid
phenotypic ratio? |
9:3:3:1
9: both dominant 3: one dom, one recessive 3: one recess, one dominant 1: both recessive |
|
Dihybrid x tester
phenotypic ratio? |
1:1:1:1
|
|
3 things Mendel did not observe
|
1) multiple alleles
2) codominance 3) incomplete inheritance |
|
Multiple alleles
|
3 or more alleles for one gene in a population
A1, A2, A3 example: red blood cells Ia (rbcs make a antigen on surface), Ib(rbcs make b antigen on surface), i (rbcs make no antigen) |
|
Codominance
|
They are both expressed in a heterozygote
ex:Ia and Ib |
|
Incomplete Dominance
|
One allele of a pair is not fully dominant over the other in a heterozygote, so an "intermediate" phenotype is observed
ex: A (red) and a (white) Aa (pink) Phenotypic ratio and genotypic ratio are the same |
|
Rule of Multiplication (Product Rule)
|
The probability of a compound event is the product of separate probabilities
(.5x.5x.5....) |
|
Rare Autosomal Dominant Disorders
|
Need one dominant allele to have the disease. (A/a=disease, A/A death rarely seen a/a normal)
Affected individuals usually have one affected parents Doesnt skip generations |
|
Examples of Rare Autosomal Dominant Disorders (2)
|
1) achondroplasia- dwarfism
2) huntington's disease--neurological |
|
Rare Autosomal Recessive Disorders
|
Needs two recessive alleles to have the disease (A/A normal, A/a normal carrier, a/a has disease)
Affected individuals usually have unaffected parents Skips generations Inbreeding increases frequency in a population |
|
What increases Rare Autosomal Recessive Disorders in a population?
|
inbreeding
|
|
Examples of Rare Autsomal Recessive Disorders (3)
|
1) cystic fibrosis
2) tay sachs disease 3) sickle cell disease |
|
Cystic fibrosis
|
-1 in 20 carriers
-most common genetic disease in Caucasians -it is thick mucus in lungs and respiratory tract, chronic lung infections, malnutrition because of missing pancreatic enzymes, infertility in males, salty babies |
|
Tay Sachs Disease
|
-neurological
-jewish child dead by 3 |
|
Sickle Cell Disease
|
-1 in 12 carriers
- defect with hemoglobin -most common genetic disease associated with individuals of African descent |
|
Examples of some common autosomal single gene Traits (4) |
1) feckles, no freckles
2) widows peak, straight hairline 3) free earlobes, attached earlobes 4) left thumb, right thumb these are not rare, and they do not affect survival or reproduction |
|
Rare X-linked recessive disorders
|
mutated gene is located on the x chromosome
only one recessive allele is needed in males to have disease females would need two copies |
|
Rare X-linked recessive disorders: usually have affected or unaffected parents?
|
unaffected parents
|
|
What increases Rare X linked recessive disorders?
|
inbreeding in population
|
|
Examples of rare x-linked recessive disorders (3)
|
1) red-green colorblindness
2) hemophilia- bleeding disorder 3) muscular dystrophies- muscular degenerative diseases |
|
Anueuploidy |
Abnormal number of chromosomes in humans
(2n + 1) 47 chromsomes |
|
What causes Anueploidy? |
errors in meiosis; nondisjunction in meiosis I and meisis II |
|
Non disjunction in meiosis I
|
Homologs dont seperate; all aneuploid (n+1) (n+1) (n-1) (n-1)
|
|
Non disjunction in meiosis II
|
Sister chromatids dont separate in one of the two cells; 1/2 aneupoloid |
|
Aneuploidy in autosomes |
monosomy |
|
Monosomy
|
Losing one autosome, not compatible with life (human)
|
|
Trisomy
|
Gain one autosome
|
|
Trisomy 13,18,21
|
down syndrome, only ones that make it through development to birth
|
|
What increases the risk of Aneuploidy in autsomes?
|
Woman ages because her eggs are arrested in prophase I, non-disjunction becomes more common
|
|
Aneuploidy in sex chromosomes |
gain or loss of sex chromosome
|
|
Examples of aneuploidy in sex chromosomes (4) |
XXY |
|
XXY
|
Trisomy; Kleninfelters syndrome, feminized male, tall and thin, immature breasts, sterile
|
|
XO |
"Turners syndrome" |
|
XXX |
normal fertile females
|
|
Fred Griffith |
investigated the nature of genetic material mouse experiment with s & r stains of streptococcous |
|
What was the consensus at the time on genetic material?
|
That eukaryote chromsomes carry genetic material and it consists of DNA and proteins |
|
Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, Maclyn McCarty |
Test nature of genetic materials, DNA-inheritable, similar experiment with mice |